Editing Chicano (section)

=== Political identity ===
{{See also|Chicano nationalism|Chicana feminism}}
[[File:Youth from the Florencia barrio of South Central Los Angeles arrive at Belvedere Park for La Marcha Por La Justicia, on January 31, 1971.jpg|thumb|Youth from the Florencia ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' of [[South-central Los Angeles|South Central Los Angeles]] arrive at Belvedere Park for La Marcha Por La Justicia (1971)|left|222x222px]]
Chicano political identity developed from a reverence of [[Pachuco]] resistance in the 1940s. [[Luis Valdez]] wrote that "Pachuco determination and pride grew through the 1950s and gave impetus to the Chicano Movement of the 1960s ... By then the political consciousness stirred by the 1943 [[Zoot Suit Riots]] had developed into a movement that would soon issue the Chicano Manifesto—a detailed platform of political activism."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Zoot-Suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation|last=Mazón|first=Mauricio|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=1989|isbn=9780292798038|page=[https://archive.org/details/zootsuitriotspsy0000mazo/page/118 118]|url=https://archive.org/details/zootsuitriotspsy0000mazo/page/118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Chicano Timespace: The Poetry and Politics of Ricardo Sánchez|last=López|first=Miguel R.|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780890969625|page=[https://archive.org/details/chicanotimespace00lope/page/113 113]|url=https://archive.org/details/chicanotimespace00lope/page/113}}</ref> By the 1960s, the Pachuco figure "emerged as an icon of resistance in Chicano cultural production."<ref name="Ramírez-2009" /> The [[Pachucas|Pachuca]] was not regarded with the same status.<ref name="Ramírez-2009" /> Catherine Ramírez credits this to the Pachuca being interpreted as a symbol of "dissident femininity, female masculinity, and, in some instances, lesbian sexuality".<ref name="Ramírez-2009">{{Cite book|title=The Woman in the Zoot Suit: Gender, Nationalism, and the Cultural Politics of Memory|last=Ramírez|first=Catherine S.|publisher=Duke University Press Books|year=2009|isbn=9780822343035|pages=109–111}}</ref>
[[File:Four Brown Berets leaders, Fred Lopez, David Sanchez , Carlos Montes and Ralph Ramirez in Los Angeles, Calif., 1968 (cropped).jpg|thumb|212x212px|[[Brown Berets]] leaders in 1968.]]
The political identity was founded on the principle that the U.S. nation-state had impoverished and exploited the Chicano people and communities. Alberto Varon argued that this brand of Chicano nationalism focused on the [[machismo]] subject in its calls for political resistance.<ref name="Varon-2018" /> Chicano [[machismo]] was both a unifying and fracturing force. [[Cherríe Moraga]] argued that it fostered [[homophobia]] and [[sexism]], which became obstacles to the Movement.<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000" /> As the Chicano political consciousness developed, Chicanas, including Chicana [[lesbian]]s of color brought attention to "[[reproductive rights]], especially sterilization abuse [<nowiki/>[[sterilization of Latinas]]], [[battered women]]'s shelters, [[rape crisis center]]s, [and] [[welfare spending|welfare]] advocacy."<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000" /> Chicana texts like ''Essays on La Mujer'' (1977), ''Mexican Women in the United States'' (1980), and ''[[This Bridge Called My Back]]'' (1981) have been relatively ignored even in [[Chicana/o studies|Chicano Studies]].<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000" /> Sonia Saldívar-Hull argued that even when Chicanas have challenged [[sexism]], their identities have been invalidated.<ref name="Saldívar-Hull-2000">{{Cite book|last=Saldívar-Hull|first=Sonia|title=Feminism on the Border: Chicana Gender Politics and Literature|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000|isbn=9780520207332|pages=29–34}}</ref>[[File:1994 No On 187 March Kings Canyon Rd Fresno.jpg|thumb|258x258px|[[Brown Berets|Brown Beret]] in [[Fresno, California|Fresno]] for No on [[1994 California Proposition 187|Prop 187]] (1994)]]
Chicano political activist groups like the [[Brown Berets]] (1967–1972; 1992–Present) gained support in their protests of educational inequalities and demanding an end to [[police brutality]].<ref name="Meier-2003" /> They collaborated with the [[Black Panther Party|Black Panthers]] and [[Young Lords]], which were founded in 1966 and 1968 respectively. Membership in the Brown Berets was estimated to have reached five thousand in over 80 chapters (mostly centered in California and Texas).<ref name="Meier-2003" /> The Brown Berets helped organize the [[Chicano Blowouts]] of 1968 and the national [[Chicano Moratorium]], which protested the high rate of Chicano casualties in the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="Meier-2003" /> Police harassment, infiltration by federal [[Agent provocateur|agents provacateur]] via [[COINTELPRO]], and internal disputes led to the decline and disbandment of the Berets in 1972.<ref name="Meier-2003" /> Sánchez, then a professor at [[East Los Angeles College]], revived the Brown Berets in 1992 prompted by the high number of Chicano homicides in [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]], hoping to replace the gang life with the Brown Berets.<ref name="Meier-2003">{{Cite book|title=The Mexican American Experience: An Encyclopedia|last1=Meier|first1=Matt S.|last2=Gutiérrez|first2=Margo|publisher=Greenwood|year=2003|isbn=9780313316432|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericane0000meie/page/55 55–56]|url=https://archive.org/details/mexicanamericane0000meie/page/55}}</ref>

[[Reies Tijerina]], who was a vocal claimant to the rights of Latin Americans and Mexican Americans and a major figure of the early [[Chicano Movement]], wrote: "The Anglo press degradized the word 'Chicano.' They use it to divide us. We use it to unify ourselves with our people and with Latin America."<ref>{{cite book|title=They Called Me King Tiger: My Struggle for the Land and Our Rights|last1=Tijerina|first1=Reies|last2=Gutiérrez|first2=José Ángel|date=2000|publisher=Art Público Press|isbn=9781558853027|location=Houston, TX|author-link=Reies Tijerina|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/theycalledmeking0000tije}}</ref>