Editing Carolingian Empire (section)

==Government==
The government, administration, and organization of the Carolingian Empire were forged in the court of Charlemagne in the decades around the year 800. In this year, Charlemagne was crowned emperor and adapted his existing royal administration to live up to the expectations of his new title. The political reforms wrought in Aachen were to have an immense impact on the political definition of Western Europe for the rest of the Middle Ages. The Carolingian improvements on the old [[Merovingian]] mechanisms of governance have been lauded by historians for the increased [[Central government|central control]], efficient bureaucracy, accountability, and [[Carolingian Renaissance|cultural renaissance]].

The Carolingian Empire was the largest western territory since the [[fall of Rome]], but historians have come to suspect the depth of the emperor's influence and control. Legally, the Carolingian emperor exercised the ''[[bannum]]'', the right to rule and command, over all of his territories. Also, he had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the [[Catholic Church|Church]] and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organize the kingdom, church, and nobility around him, however, its efficacy was directly dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects.

===Military===

{{multiple image
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| image1            = Oriflamme Charlemagne angon.jpg
| image2            = Oriflamme of Charlemagne.png
| footer            = 9th century mosaic of Charlemagne receiving a Banner from Saint Peter (top) and a modern rendition of the same banner (bottom)
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[[File:Carolingian Banner.png|thumb|Carolingian dynasty banner according to the osprey men at arms{{Clarification|date=June 2024}}]]
[[File:Carolingian Warrior.jpg|thumb|Carolingian warrior on a [[Horses in warfare|war horse]] (8th - 10th century) with [[lance]], [[Shields|round shield]], [[Mail (armour)|chainmail]] and [[spangenhelm]] in the Coronation Hall of the [[Aachen Rathaus|Aachen City Hall]] in June 2014 on the occasion of the exhibition "Charlemagne - power, art, treasures"]]

Almost every year between the accession of Charles Martel and the conclusion of the wars with the Saxons Frankish forces went on campaign or expedition, often into enemy territory.{{Sfn|Reuter|2006|page=252}} Charlemagne would, for many years, gather an assembly around Easter and launch a military effort that would typically take place through the summer as this would ensure there were enough supplies for the fighting force.{{Sfn|Hooper|Bennett|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sf8UIynR0koC&pg=PA13 13]}} Charlemagne passed regulations requiring all mustered fighting men to own and bring their own weapons; the wealthy cavalrymen had to bring their own armour, poor men had to bring spears and shields, and those driving the carts had to have bows and arrows in their possession.{{Sfn|Hooper|Bennett|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Sf8UIynR0koC&pg=PA13 13]}} In regards to provisions, men were instructed not to eat food until a specific location was reached, and carts should carry three months worth of food and six months worth of weapons and clothing along with tools.{{Sfn|Hooper|Bennett|1996|page=17}} Preference was shown towards [[Maneuver warfare|mobility warfare]] in place of [[defence-in-depth]] infrastructure; captured fortifications were often destroyed so they could not be used to resist Carolingian authority in the future.{{Sfn|Bowlus|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0XBtVwukIogC&pg=PA49 49]}} After 800 and during the reign of Louis the Pious, efforts of expansion dwindled. Tim Reuter has shown that many military efforts during Louis' reign were largely defensive and in response to external threats.{{Sfn|Reuter|2006|page=252}}

It had long been held that Carolingian military success was based on the use of a [[heavy cavalry|cavalry]] force created by Charles Martel in the 730s.{{Sfn|Hooper|Bennett|1996|page=12}} However, it is clear that no such "cavalry revolution" took place in the Carolingian period leading up to and during the reign of Charlemagne.{{Sfn|Bowlus|2006|page=49}} This is because the [[stirrup]] was not known to the Franks until the late eighth century and soldiers on horseback would therefore have used swords and lances for striking and not charging.{{Sfn|Hooper|Bennett|1996|pages=12–13}} Carolingian military success rested primarily on [[siege]] technologies and excellent logistics.{{Sfn|Bowlus|2006|page=49}} However, large numbers of horses were used by the Frankish military during the age of Charlemagne. This was because [[mounted infantry|horses provided a quick, long-distance method of transporting troops]], which was critical to building and maintaining such a large empire.{{Sfn|Hooper|Bennett|1996|page=13}} The importance of horses to the Carolingian military is revealed through the Revised version of the Royal Frankish Annals.{{sfn|Scholz|1970|p=}} The annals mention that whilst Charlemagne was on campaign in 791 "there broke out such a pestilence among the horses [...] that barely a tenth out of so many thousands are said to have survived."{{Sfn|King|1987|p=124}} Shortage of horses played a role in preventing Carolingian forces from continuing a campaign against the Avars in Pannonia.{{Sfn|Hooper|Bennett|1996|page=17}}

The Frankish royal bodyguards, the continuation of the Merovingian institution of the [[antrustion]], were consciously modelled on Late Roman precedents. These guards were organized into ''schola'' and entitled ''scholares'', and used armour based on Late Roman and early Byzantine models. Frankish artistic depictions of these bodyguards also mirrored Late Roman traditions.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Bernard S. |last=Bachrach |author-link=Bernard Bachrach |title=Early Carolingian Warfare Prelude to Empire |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-2144-2 |pages=70–71}}</ref>

===Palaces===
[[File:Aachen_Germany_Imperial-Cathedral-12a.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Palatine Chapel]] in [[Aachen]], Germany]]
No permanent [[capital city]] existed in the empire, the [[itinerant court]] being a typical characteristic of all Western European kingdoms at this time. Some palaces can, however, be distinguished as locations of central administration. In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to Aachen ({{Langx|fr|Aix-la-Chapelle}}; {{Langx|it|Aquisgrana}}). He began to build a [[Charlemagne's Palace in Aachen|palace]] there in the 780s, with original plans being thought up perhaps as soon as 768.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=232, 356}} The palace chapel, constructed in 796, later became [[Aachen Cathedral]]. During the 790s when construction picked up at Aachen Charlemagne's court became more centred compared with the 770s where court so often found itself located in tents during campaigning.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Airlie |first=Stuart |title=Power and Its Problems in Carolingian Europe |publisher=Ashgate |year=2012 |pages=4–11}}</ref> Though Aachen was certainly not intended to be a sedentary capital it was built in the political heartland of Charlemagne's realm to act as a meeting place for aristocrats and churchmen so that patronage might be distributed, assemblies held, laws written, and even where scholarly churchmen gathered for the purposes of learning.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Innes |first=Matthew |title=Charlemagne's Government |year=2005 |page=2}} in {{Harvnb|Story|2005}}</ref> Aachen was also a centre for information and gossip being pulled in from across the Empire by courtiers and churchmen alike.<ref name=":6" /> Of course, despite being the centre of Charlemagne's government, until his later years, his court moved often and made use of other palaces at Frankfurt, Ingelheim and Nijmegen. The use of such structures would signal the beginnings of the palace system of government used by the Carolingian court throughout reigns of many Carolingian rulers.{{Sfn|Costambeys|2011|pp=173–177}} Stuart Airlie has suggested that there were over 150 palaces throughout the Carolingian World which would provide the setting for court activity.<ref name=":6" />

Palaces were not merely locations of administrative government but also stood as important symbols. Under Charlemagne their excellence was a translation of the treasure built up from conquest into a symbolic permanence as well as exclaiming royal authority.{{Sfn|Costambeys|2011|pages=173–177}}<ref name=":6" /> [[Einhard]] suggested the construction of so-called 'public buildings' was a testament to Charlemagne's greatness and likeness to the emperors of antiquity and this connection was certainly capitalised upon by the imagery of palace decorations. [[Ingelheim am Rhein|Ingelheim]] is a particular example of such symbolism and thus the importance of the palace system in more than mere governance. The palace chapel is written to have been 'lined with images from the Bible' and the hall of the palace 'decorated with a picture cycle celebrating the deeds of great kings' including rulers of antiquity as well as Carolingian rulers such as Charles Martel and Pippin III.{{Sfn|Costambeys|2011|pages=173–177}}<ref name=":6" />

Louis the Pious used the palace system much to the same effect as Charlemagne during his reign as king of Aquitaine, rotating his court between four winter palaces throughout the region.{{Sfn|Costambeys|2011|pages=173–177}} During his reign as Emperor he used Aachen, Ingelheim, Frankfurt, and Mainz which were almost always the locations for general assemblies held 'two or three [times] a year in the period 896–28...' and while he was not an immobile ruler, his reign has certainly been described as more static.{{Sfn|Costambeys|2011|pages=173–177}} In this way the palace system can also been seen as a tool of continuity in governance. After the splintering of the Empire the palace system continued to be used by succeeding Carolingian rulers with Charles the Bald centring his power at Compiègne,{{Sfn|McKitterick|1983|page=22}} where the palace chapel was dedicated to the Virgin Mary in 877, something remarked on as a sign of continuity with Aachen's Mother of God chapel.{{Sfn|Costambeys|2011|pages=410–411}} For Louis the German, Frankfurt has been deemed his own 'neo-Aachen' and Charles the Fat's palace at Sélestat in Alsace was designed specifically to imitate Aachen.{{Sfn|Costambeys|2011|pages=410–411}}

The palace system as an idea for Carolingian central administration and governance has been challenged by historian F. L. Ganshof, who argued that the palaces of the Carolingians "contained nothing resembling the specialised services and departments available at the same period to the Byzantine emperor or the caliph of Baghdad."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganshof |first=F. L. |title=The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy |publisher=Longman |year=1971 |pages=257 |translator-last=Sondheimer |translator-first=Janet}}</ref> However, further reading in the works of Carolingian historians such as Matthew Innes, Rosamond McKitterick, and Stuart Airlie suggest that the use of palaces were important in the evolution of Carolingian governance and Janet Nelson has argued that "palaces are places from which power emanates and is exercised..." and the importance of palaces to Carolingian administration, learning, and legitimacy has been widely argued.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=}}

===Household===
{{See also|Royal household under the Merovingians and Carolingians}}
The royal household was an itinerant body (until c. 802) which moved around the kingdom making sure good government was upheld in the localities. The most important positions were the chaplain (who was responsible for all ecclesiastical affairs in the kingdom), and the count of the palace ([[Count palatine]]) who had supreme control over the household. It also included more minor officials e.g. chamberlain, seneschal, and marshal. The household sometimes led the army (e.g. Seneschal [[Andorf]] against the [[Bretons]] in 786).

Possibly associated with the chaplain and the royal chapel was the office of the chancellor, head of the chancery, a non-permanent writing office. The charters produced were rudimentary and mostly to do with land deeds. There are 262 surviving from Charles’ reign as opposed to 40 from [[Pepin the Short|Pepin]]’s and 350 from [[Louis the Pious]].

===Officials===
There are 3 main offices which enforced Carolingian authority in the localities:

The [[Comes]] ({{Langx|la|count}}). Appointed by Charles to administer a [[county]]. The Carolingian Empire (except Bavaria) was divided up into between 110 and 600 counties, each divided into ''centenae'' which were under the control of a vicar. At first, they were royal agents sent out by Charles but after c. 802 they were important local magnates. They were responsible for justice, enforcing capitularies, levying soldiers, receiving tolls and dues and maintaining roads and bridges. They could technically be dismissed by the king but many offices became hereditary. They were also sometimes corrupt although many were exemplary e.g. Count Eric of Friuli. Provincial governors eventually evolved who supervised several counts.

The [[Missus Dominicus|Missi Dominici]] ({{Langx|la|dominical emissaries}}). Originally appointed ad hoc, a reform in 802 led to the office of ''[[missus dominicus]]'' becoming a permanent one. The ''Missi Dominici'' were sent out in pairs. One was an ecclesiastic and one secular. Their status as high officials was thought to safeguard them from the temptation of taking bribes. They made four journeys a year in their local ''[[missaticum]],'' each lasting a month, and were responsible for making the royal will and capitularies known, judging cases and occasionally raising armies.

The [[Vassi Dominici]]. These were the king’s vassals and were usually the sons of powerful men, holding ‘benefices’ and forming a contingent in the royal army. They also went on ad hoc missions.

===Legal system===
Around 780 Charlemagne reformed the local system of administering justice and created the ''scabini'', professional experts on the law. Every count had the help of seven of these scabini, who were supposed to know every national law so that all men could be judged according to it.

Judges were also banned from taking bribes and were supposed to use sworn inquests to establish facts.

In 802, all law was written down and amended (the [[Salic law]] was also amended in both 798 and 802, although even Einhard admits in section 29 that this was imperfect). Judges were supposed to have a copy of both the Salic law code and the [[Ripuarian law]] code.

Most people in the Carolingian Empire lived under a legal code that directly copied from [[Roman law]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carlyle |first1=Alexander James |author-link1=Alexander James Carlyle |title=A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West |last2=Carlyle |first2=Robert Warrand |author-link2=Robert Warrand Carlyle |publisher=[[William Blackwood and Sons]] |year=1909 |volume=II |location=Edinburgh |pages=5}}</ref>

===Coinage===
[[File:Adelchis denier 641521.jpg|thumb|A ''[[denarius]]'' minted by Prince [[Adelchis of Benevento]] in the name of Emperor Louis II and Empress Engelberga, showing the expansion of Carolingian authority in [[southern Italy]] which Louis achieved]]
Coinage had a strong association with the Roman Empire, and Charlemagne took up its regulation with his other imperial duties. The Carolingians exercised controls over the silver coinage of the realm, controlling its composition and value. The name of the emperor, not of the minter, appeared on the coins. Charlemagne worked to suppress mints in northern Germany on the [[Baltic Sea]].

===Subdivision===
The Frankish kingdom was subdivided by Charlemagne into three separate areas to make administration easier. These were the inner "core" of the kingdom ([[Austrasia]], [[Neustria]], and [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]]) which were supervised directly by the missatica system and the itinerant household. Outside this was the ''regna'' where Frankish administration rested upon the counts, and outside this was the marcher areas where ruled powerful governors. These marcher lordships were present in [[Brittany]], Spain, and [[Bavaria]].

Charles also created two sub-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin respectively. [[Bavaria]] was also under the command of an autonomous governor, [[Gerold, Prefect of Bavaria|Gerold]], until his death in 796. While Charles still had overall authority in these areas they were fairly autonomous with their own chancery and minting facilities.

===''Placitum generalis''===
{{Main|Placitum|Marchfield (assembly)}}
The annual meeting, the Placitum Generalis or Marchfield, was held every year (between March and May) at a place appointed by the king. It was called for three reasons: to gather the Frankish host to go on a campaign, to discuss political and ecclesiastical matters affecting the kingdom and to legislate for them, and to make judgments. All important men had to go to the meeting and so it was an important way for Charles to make his will known. Originally the meeting worked effectively however later it merely became a forum for discussion and for nobles to express their dissatisfaction.

===Oaths===

The oath of fidelity was a way for Charles to ensure loyalty from all his subjects. As early as 779 he banned sworn guilds between other men so that everyone took an oath of loyalty only to him. In 789 (in response to the 786 rebellion) he began legislating that everyone should swear fidelity to him as king, however in 802 he expanded the oath greatly and made it so that all men over age 12 swore it to him.

=== Capitularies ===
[[Capitularies]] were the written records of decisions made by the Carolingian kings in consultation with assemblies during the eighth and ninth century.{{Sfn|Story|2005}} The name comes from the Latin ''<nowiki/>'Capitula'<nowiki/>'' for ''<nowiki/>'Chapters''' and refers to the way these records were taken and written up, in a chapter by chapter style. They are regarded as being 'amongst the most important sources for the governance of the Frankish Empire in the eight and ninth century' by Sören Kaschke.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaschke |first1=Sören |last2=Mischke |first2=Britta |date=2019 |title=Capitularies in the Carolingian Period |journal=History Compass |language=en |volume=17 |issue=10 |doi=10.1111/hic3.12592 |s2cid=203080653 |issn=1478-0542}}</ref> The use of capitularies represent a change in the pattern of contact between the king and his provinces in the Carolingian period. The contents of capitularies could include a wide range of topics, including royal orders, instructions for specific officials, deliberations of assemblies on both secular and ecclesiastical affairs as well as additions and alterations to the law.

Primary evidence shows that capitularies were copied and disseminated all throughout Charlemagne's empire, however there is insufficient evidence to suggest the efficacy of the capitularies and whether they were actually put into practice throughout the realm. As Charlemagne became increasingly stationary, the amount of capitularies produced increased, this was particularly noticeable after the General Admonition of 789.

There has been debates over the purpose of capitularies. Some historians argue that the capitularies were nothing more than a 'royal wish-list' while others argue for capitularies representing the basis of a centralised state.{{Sfn|Story|2005}} Capitularies were implemented through the use of the '''[[Missus dominicus|missi']],'' royal agents who would travel around the Carolingian kingdom, usually in pairs of a secular missi and ecclesiastical missi, reading out copied out versions of the latest capitularies to assemblies of people. The missi also had other roles such as handling complex local disputes and can be argued to have been crucial to the success of both capitularies and the expansion of Charlemagne's influence.

Some notable capitularies from Charlemagne's reign are:
* The Capitulary of Herstal of 779: Dealt with both ecclesiastical and secular topics, placing importance on the importance of paying [[Tithe]]s, the role of the Bishop and outlining the intolerance of forming an armed following in Charlemagne's empire.
* ''[[Admonitio Generalis]]'' of 789: One of the most influential Capitularies of Charlemagne's time. Consisted of over 80 chapters, including many laws on religion.
* The Capitulary of Frankfurt of 794: Speaks out against adoptionism and iconoclasm.
* The Programmatic Capitulary of 802. This shows an increasing sense of vision in society.
* The [[Capitulary for the Jews]] of 814, delineating the prohibitions of Jews engaging in commerce or money-lending.