Editing Berbers (section)

==== In al-Andalus during the Umayyad emirate ====
When the Umayyad Caliphate was overthrown in 750, a grandson of [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Caliph Hisham]], Abd ar-Rahman, escaped to north Africa{{r|Collins1994|p=115}} and hid among the Berbers of north Africa for five years. A persistent tradition states that this is because his mother was Berber{{r|Collins1994|p=117–118}} and that he first took refuge with the Nafsa Berbers, his mother's people. As the governor [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri|Ibn Habib]] was seeking him, he then fled to the more powerful Zenata Berber confederacy, who were enemies of Ibn Habib. Since the Zenata had been part of the initial invasion force of al-Andalus, and were still present in the Iberian peninsula, this gave Abd ar-Rahman a base of support in al-Andalus,{{r|Collins1994|p=119}} although he seems to have drawn most of his support from portions of Balj's army that were still loyal to the Umayyads.{{r|Collins1994|p=122–123}}{{r|Collins2014|p=8}}

Abd ar-Rahman crossed to Spain in 756 and declared himself the legitimate Umayyad ruler of al-Andalus. The governor, [[Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri|Yusuf]], refused to submit. After losing the initial battle near Cordoba,{{r|Collins1994|p=124–125}} Yusuf fled to Mérida, where he raised a large Berber army, with which he marched on [[Seville]], but was defeated by forces loyal to Abd ar-Rahman. Yusuf fled to Toledo, and was killed either on the way or after reaching that place.{{r|Collins1994|p=132}} Yusuf's cousin Hisham ibn Urwa continued to resist Abd ar-Rahman from Toledo until 764,{{r|Collins1994|p=133}} and the sons of Yusuf revolted again in 785. These family members of Yusuf, members of the [[Fihrids|Fihri]] tribe, were effective in obtaining support from Berbers in their revolts against the Umayyad regime.{{r|Collins1994|p=134}}

As [[emir]] of al-Andalus, [[Abd al-Rahman I|Abd ar-Rahman I]] faced persistent opposition from Berber groups, including the Zenata. Berbers provided much of Yusuf's support in fighting Abd ar-Rahman. In 774, Zenata Berbers were involved in a Yemeni revolt in the area of Seville.{{r|Collins1994|p=168}} Andalusi Berber [[Salih ibn Tarif]] declared himself a prophet and ruled the [[Barghawata|Bargawata]] Berber confederation in Morocco in the 770s.{{r|Collins1994|p=169}}

In 768, a [[Miknasa]] Berber named Shaqya ibn Abd al-Walid declared himself a [[Isma'ilism|Fatimid]] imam, claiming descent from [[Fatimah]] and [[Ali]].{{r|Collins1994|p=168}} He is mainly known from the work of the Arab historian [[Ibn al-Athir]],{{r|Collins1994|p=170}} who wrote that Shaqya's revolt originated in the area of modern [[Cuenca, Spain|Cuenca]], an area of Spain that is mountainous and difficult to traverse. Shaqya first killed the Umayyad governor of the fortress of {{ill|Santaver|ca}} (near Roman [[Ercavica]]), and subsequently ravaged the district surrounding Coria. Abd ar-Rahman sent out armies to fight him in 769, 770, and 771; but Shaqya avoided them by moving into the mountains. In 772, Shaqya defeated an Umayyad force by a ruse and killed the governor of the fortress of [[Medellín, Spain|Medellin]]. He was besieged by Umayyads in 774, but the revolt near Seville forced the besieging troops to withdraw. In 775, a Berber garrison in Coria declared allegiance to Shaqya, but Abd ar-Rahman retook the town and chased the Berbers into the mountains. In 776, Shaqya resisted sieges of his two main fortresses at Santaver and Shebat'ran (near Toledo); but in 777 he was betrayed and killed by his own followers, who sent his head to Abd ar-Rahman.{{r|Collins1994|p=170–171}}

Roger Collins notes that both modern historians and ancient Arab authors have had a tendency to portray Shaqya as a fanatic followed by credulous fanatics, and to argue that he was either self-deluded or fraudulent in his claim of Fatimid descent.{{r|Collins1994|p=169}} However, Collins considers him an example of the messianic leaders that were not uncommon among Berbers at that time and earlier. He compares Shaqya to [[Idris I of Morocco|Idris I]], a descendant of Ali accepted by the Zenata Berbers, who founded the [[Idrisid dynasty]] in 788, and to Salih ibn Tarif, who ruled the Bargawata Berber in the 770s. He also compares these leaders to pre-Islamic leaders Dihya and Kusaila.{{r|Collins1994|p=169–170}}

In 788, [[Hisham I of Córdoba|Hisham I]] succeeded Abd ar-Rahman as emir; but his brother Sulayman revolted and fled to the Berber garrison of [[Valencia]], where he held out for two years. Finally, Sulayman came to terms with Hisham and went into exile in 790, together with other brothers who had rebelled with him.{{r|Collins1994|p=203, 208}} In north Africa, Sulayman and his brothers forged alliances with local Berbers, especially the Kharijite ruler of Tahert. After the death of Hisham and the accession of [[Al-Hakam I|Al-Hakam]], Hisham's brothers challenged Al-Hakam for the succession. Abd Allah{{who|date=January 2021|reason=may be one of Hisham's brothers}} crossed over to Valencia first in 796, calling on the allegiance of the same Berber garrison that sheltered Sulayman years earlier.{{r|Collins2014|p=30}} Crossing to al-Andalus in 798, Sulayman based himself in Elvira (now Granada), [[Écija|Ecija]], and [[Jaén, Spain|Jaen]], apparently drawing support from the Berbers in these mountainous southern regions. Sulayman was defeated in battle in 800 and fled to the Berber stronghold in Mérida, but was captured before reaching it and executed in Cordoba.{{r|Collins1994|p=208}}

In 797, the Berbers of Talavera played a major part in defeating a revolt against Al-Hakam in Toledo.{{r|Collins2014|p=32}} A certain Ubayd Allah ibn Hamir of Toledo rebelled against Al-Hakam, who ordered Amrus ibn Yusuf, the commander of the Berbers in Talavera, to suppress the rebellion. Amrus negotiated in secret with the Banu Mahsa faction in Toledo, promising them the governorship if they betrayed Ibn Hamir. The Banu Mahsa brought Ibn Hamir's head to Amrus in Talavera. However, there was a feud between the Banu Mahsa and the Berbers of Talavera, who killed all the Banu Mahsa. Amrus sent the heads of the Banu Mahsa along with that of Ibn Hamir to Al-Hakam in Cordoba. The Toledo rebellion was sufficiently weakened that Amrus was able to enter Toledo and convince its inhabitants to submit.{{r|Collins2014|p=32–33}}

Collins argues that unassimilated Berber garrisons in al-Andalus engaged in local vendettas and feuds, such as the conflict with the Banu Mahsa.{{r|Collins2014|p=33}} This was due to the limited power of the Umayyad emir's central authority. Collins states that "the Berbers, despite being fellow Muslims, were despised by those who claimed Arab descent".{{r|Collins2014|p=33–34}} As well as having feuds with Arab factions, the Berbers sometimes had major conflicts with the local communities where they were stationed. In 794, the Berber garrison of [[Tarragona, Spain|Tarragona]] massacred the inhabitants of the city. Tarragona was uninhabited for seven years until the Frankish conquest of Barcelona led to its reoccupation.{{r|Collins2014|p=34}}

Berber groups were involved in the rebellion of [[Umar ibn Hafsun]] from 880 to 915.{{r|Collins2014|p=121–122}} Ibn Hafsun rebelled in 880, was captured, then escaped in 883 to his base in Bobastro. There he formed an alliance with the Banu Rifa' tribe of Berbers, who had a stronghold in Alhama.{{r|Collins2014|p=122}} He then formed alliances with other local Berber clans, taking the towns of Osuna, Estepa, and Ecija in 889. He captured Jaen in 892.{{r|Collins2014|p=122}} He was only defeated in 915 by [[Abd al-Rahman III|Abd ar-Rahman III]].{{r|Collins2014|p=125}}

Throughout the ninth century, the Berber garrisons were one of the main military supports of the Umayyad regime.{{r|Collins2014|p=37}} Although they had caused numerous problems for Abd ar-Rahman I, Collins suggests that by the reign of Al-Hakam the Berber conflicts with Arabs and native Iberians meant that Berbers could only look to the Umayyad regime for support and patronage and developed solid ties of loyalty to the emirs. However, they were also difficult to control, and by the end of the ninth century the Berber frontier garrisons disappear from the sources. Collins says this might be because they migrated back to north Africa or gradually assimilated.{{r|Collins2014|p=37}}