Editing Bell Labs (section)

===1950s===
{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2020}}
The 1950s also saw developments based upon [[information theory]]. The central development was [[binary code]] systems. Efforts concentrated on the prime mission of supporting the Bell System with engineering advances, including the N-carrier system, TD [[microwave radio relay]], [[direct distance dialing]], E-[[repeater]], [[wire spring relay]], and the [[Number Five Crossbar Switching System]].

In 1952, [[William Gardner Pfann]] revealed the method of [[zone melting]], which enabled semiconductor purification and level doping.

In 1953, [[Maurice Karnaugh]] developed the [[Karnaugh map]], used for managing of [[Boolean algebra (logic)|Boolean algebraic]] expressions.

In January 1954, Bell Labs built one of the first completely transistorized computer machines,<ref>{{cite web |title=CED in the History of Media Technology |url=https://www.cedmagic.com/history/tradic-transistorized.html#:~:text=TRADIC%20stands%20for%20TRAnisitor%20DIgital,a%20computer%20for%20airborne%20use. |website=www.cedmagic.com |access-date=27 November 2023}}</ref> [[TRADIC]] or Flyable TRADIC,<ref>{{cite news |title=TRADIC - The "Super Computer" |url=https://www.rfcafe.com/references/popular-electronics/tradic-super-computer-popular-electronics-june-1955.htm |website=www.rfcafe.com |publisher=Popular Electronics |access-date=27 November 2023 |last1=Cafe |first1=Kirt Blattenberger }}</ref> for the United States Air Force with 10,358 germanium point-contact diodes and 684 Bell Labs Type 1734 Type A cartridge transistors.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} The design team was led by electrical engineer Jean Howard Felker with James R. Harris and Louis C. Brown ("Charlie Brown") as the lead engineers on the project, which started in 1951.<ref>{{cite web |title=1953: TRANSISTORIZED COMPUTERS EMERGE |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/transistorized-computers-emerge/ |website=www.computerhistory.org |publisher=CHM Computer History Museum |access-date=27 November 2023}}</ref> The device took only 3 cubic-feet and consumed 100 watt power for its small and low powered design in comparison to the vacuum tube designs of the times. The device could be installed in a B-52 Stratofortress Bomber and had a performance up to one million logical operations a second. The flyable program used a Mylar sheet with punched holes, instead of the removable plugboard.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laude |first1=David |title=A History of Semiconductors from the Archaic to the Monolithic |date=March 2012 |url=https://bmwmotorcycletech.info/AHistoryofSemiconductors.pdf |page=13}}</ref>

In 1954, the first modern [[solar cell]] was invented at Bell Laboratories.

In 1955, [[Carl Frosch]] and Lincoln Derick discovered semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide.<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US2802760A|title=Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion|gdate=1957-08-13|invent1=Lincoln|invent2=Frosch|inventor1-first=Derick|inventor2-first=Carl J.|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2802760A}}</ref>

In 1956 [[TAT-1]], the first [[transatlantic communications cable]] to carry telephone conversations, was laid between Scotland and Newfoundland in a joint effort by AT&T, Bell Laboratories, and British and Canadian telephone companies.

In 1957, [[Max Mathews]] created [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC]], one of the first computer programs to play [[electronic music]]. [[Robert C. Prim]] and [[Joseph Kruskal]] developed new [[greedy algorithm]]s that revolutionized [[network planning and design|computer network design]].

In 1957 Frosch and Derick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide field effect transistors; the first planar transistors, in which drain and source were adjacent at the same surface. They showed that silicon dioxide insulated, protected silicon wafers and prevented dopants from diffusing into the wafer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frosch |first1=C. J. |last2=Derick |first2=L |date=1957 |title=Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=104 |issue=9 |pages=547 |doi=10.1149/1.2428650}}</ref>

In 1958, a technical paper by [[Arthur Schawlow]] and [[Charles Hard Townes]] first described the [[laser]].

Following Frosch and Derick research, [[Mohamed Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] proposed a silicon MOS transistor in 1959<ref name="Bassett22">{{cite book |last1=Bassett |first1=Ross Knox |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUbB3d2UnaAC&pg=PA22 |title=To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology |date=2007 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8018-8639-3 |pages=22–23}}</ref> and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atalla |first1=M. |author1-link=Mohamed Atalla |last2=Kahng |first2=D. |author2-link=Dawon Kahng |date=1960 |title=Silicon-silicon dioxide field induced surface devices |journal=IRE-AIEE Solid State Device Research Conference}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/ |journal=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=2023-01-16}}</ref> Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=KAHNG |first=D. |date=1961 |title=Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device |url=https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |journal=Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories |pages=583–596 |doi=10.1142/9789814503464_0076 |isbn=978-981-02-0209-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lojek |first=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-34258-8 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |page=321}}</ref>

K. E. Daburlos and H. J. Patterson of Bell Laboratories continued on the work of C. Frosch and L. Derick, and developed a process similar to Hoerni's [[planar process]] about the same time.<ref name="Lojek1203">{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |page=120}}</ref>

J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides, fabricated a high quality Si/[[Silicon dioxide|SiO<sub>2</sub>]] stack and published their results in 1960.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ligenza |first1=J. R. |last2=Spitzer |first2=W. G. |date=1960-07-01 |title=The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0022369760902195 |journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=14 |pages=131–136 |doi=10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5 |bibcode=1960JPCS...14..131L |issn=0022-3697}}</ref><ref name="Deal2">{{cite book |last1=Deal |first1=Bruce E. |title=Silicon materials science and technology |date=1998 |publisher=[[The Electrochemical Society]] |isbn=978-1566771931 |page=183 |chapter=Highlights Of Silicon Thermal Oxidation Technology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cr8FPGkiRS0C&pg=PA183}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3540342588 |page=322}}</ref>