Editing Aspirin (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of aspirin}}
[[File:Aspirine-1923.jpg|thumb|left|1923 advertisement]]
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Medicines made from [[willow]] and other [[salicylate]]-rich plants appear in clay tablets from ancient [[Sumer]] as well as the [[Ebers Papyrus]] from ancient Egypt.<ref name=Jeffreys2008/>{{rp|8–13}}<ref name=ACS/><ref name="Myers">{{Cite book|last=Myers|first=Richard L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AnJU-hralEC|title=The 100 Most Important Chemical Compounds: A Reference Guide|date=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-33758-1|language=en|pages=10-12|access-date=21 November 2015|archive-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617093705/https://books.google.com/books?id=0AnJU-hralEC|url-status=live}}</ref> Hippocrates referred to the use of salicylic tea to reduce fevers around 400 BC, and willow bark preparations were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in [[classical antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name=ACS/> Willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever, pain, and inflammation in the mid-eighteenth century<ref name="Goldberg">{{cite magazine |vauthors = Goldberg DR |title=Aspirin: Turn of the Century Miracle Drug|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/aspirin-turn-of-the-century-miracle-drug|magazine=Chemical Heritage |date=Summer 2009|volume=27|issue= 2|pages=26–30}}</ref> after the Rev Edward Stone of [[Chipping Norton]], Oxfordshire, noticed that the bitter taste of willow bark resembled the taste of the bark of the [[cinchona]] tree, known as "[[Peruvian bark]]", which was used successfully in [[Peru]] to treat a variety of ailments. Stone experimented with preparations of powdered willow bark on people in Chipping Norton for five years and found it to be as effective as Peruvian bark and a cheaper domestic version. In 1763, he sent a report of his findings to the [[Royal Society]] in London.<ref>{{cite book|title= Aspirin: the Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug | vauthors = Jeffreys D |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2004 |pages=18–34 }}</ref> By the nineteenth century, pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of chemicals related to [[salicylic acid]], the active component of willow extract.<ref name="Jeffreys2008" />{{rp|46–55}}

[[File:Old Package of Aspirin.jpg|thumb|Old package. "Export from Germany is prohibited"]]
In 1853, chemist [[Charles Frédéric Gerhardt]] treated [[sodium salicylate]] with [[acetyl chloride]] to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time;<ref name=Jeffreys2008/>{{rp|46–48}} in the second half of the 19th century, other academic chemists established the compound's chemical structure and devised more efficient methods of synthesis. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm [[Bayer]] began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines, and identified a new way to synthesize it.<ref name=Jeffreys2008/>{{rp|69–75}} That year, [[Felix Hoffmann]] (or [[Arthur Eichengrün]]) of Bayer was the first to produce acetylsalicylic acid in a pure, stable form.<ref name=HoffmannSHI /><ref name="Myers" />

Salicylic acid had been extracted in 1838 from the herb [[Filipendula ulmaria|meadowsweet]], whose German name, ''Spirsäure'', was the basis for naming the newly synthesized drug, which, by 1899, Bayer was selling globally.<ref name="Jeffreys2008" />{{rp|46–55}}<ref name=MannPlummer1991/>{{rp|27}} The word ''Aspirin'' was Bayer's brand name, rather than the generic name of the drug; however, Bayer's rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries. Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the 20th century, leading to fierce competition with the proliferation of aspirin brands and products.<ref name=ACS/>

Aspirin's popularity declined after the development of [[paracetamol|acetaminophen/paracetamol]] in 1956 and [[ibuprofen]] in 1962. In the 1960s and 1970s, [[John Vane]] and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin's effects,<ref name=Jeffreys2008/>{{rp|226–231}} while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin's efficacy as an anti-clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases.<ref name=Jeffreys2008/>{{rp|247–257}} The initial large studies on the use of low-dose aspirin to prevent heart attacks that were published in the 1970s and 1980s helped spur reform in [[clinical research ethics]] and [[guidelines for human subject research]] and US federal law, and are often cited as examples of clinical trials that included only men, but from which people drew general conclusions that did not hold true for women.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schiebinger L | title = Women's health and clinical trials | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 112 | issue = 7 | pages = 973–7 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14523031 | pmc = 198535 | doi = 10.1172/JCI19993 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Regular aspirin intake and acute myocardial infarction | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5905 | pages = 440–3 | date = March 1974 | pmid = 4816857 | pmc = 1633212 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5905.440 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Elwood PC, Cochrane AL, Burr ML, Sweetnam PM, Williams G, Welsby E, Hughes SJ, Renton R | title = A randomized controlled trial of acetyl salicylic acid in the secondary prevention of mortality from myocardial infarction | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5905 | pages = 436–40 | date = March 1974 | pmid = 4593555 | pmc = 1633246 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5905.436 }}</ref>

Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the 20th century, and remain strong in the 21st century with widespread use as a preventive treatment for [[heart attack]]s and [[stroke]]s.<ref name=Jeffreys2008/>{{rp|267–269}}

=== Trademark ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 300
| caption_align = left
| header_align = center
| header = 
| image1 = Bayer Aspirin and store-brand generic on Canadian drugstore shelf.jpg
| alt1 = Four boxes of medication on a store shelf above price tags. The two on the left are yellow with "Aspirin" in bold black type and explanatory text in English on the top box and French on the bottom. The two on the right are slightly smaller and white with the word "Life" in the corner inside a red circle. The text, in French on top and English below, describes the medication as "acetylsalicylic acid tablets"
| caption1 = In Canada and many other countries, "Aspirin" remains a trademark, so generic aspirin is sold as "ASA" ('''a'''cetyl'''s'''alicylic '''a'''cid).
| image2 = Bayer and store-brand aspirin containers on US drugstore shelf.jpg
| alt2 = Four plastic bottles of medication on another drugstore shelf above their price tags. The two on the left are yellow with the word "Bayer" prominent in black type; above small type describes the product as "genuine aspirin". On the left are two clear plastic bottles with the Rite Aid drugstore chain logo on their yellow labels, which describe the product as "pain relief aspirin".
| caption2 = In the US, "aspirin" is a generic name.
}}
Bayer lost its trademark for aspirin in the United States and some other countries in actions taken between 1918 and 1921 because it had failed to use the name for its own product correctly and had for years allowed the use of "Aspirin" by other manufacturers without defending the intellectual property rights.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Bayer Co. v. United Drug Co. |vol=272 |reporter=F. |opinion=505 |pinpoint=p.512 |court=S.D.N.Y |date=1921 |url=https://cyber.law.harvard.edu/metaschool/fisher/domain/tmcases/bayer.htm }}</ref> Aspirin is a [[generic trademark]] in many countries.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.genericides.org/trademark/aspirin |title= Has aspirin become a generic trademark? |access-date= 17 February 2021 |website= genericides.org |date= 25 March 2020 |archive-date= 5 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210305221908/https://genericides.org/trademark/aspirin |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = Scientific style and format: the CBE manual for authors, editors, and publishers | collaboration = CBE Style Manual Committee | vauthors = Huth EJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 1994 |page = 164 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PoFJ-OhE63UC&pg=PA164 |isbn = 978-0-521-47154-1 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151015200126/https://books.google.com/books?id=PoFJ-OhE63UC&pg=PA164 |archive-date = 15 October 2015|bibcode = 1994ssfc.book.....S }}</ref> Aspirin, with a capital "A", remains a registered trademark of Bayer in Germany, Canada, Mexico, and in over 80 other countries, for acetylsalicylic acid in all markets, but using different packaging and physical aspects for each.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/aspirin-the-versatile-drug-1.822289 | work=CBC News | title=Aspirin: the versatile drug | date=28 May 2009 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106123159/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/aspirin-the-versatile-drug-1.822289 | archive-date=6 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheng TO | title = The history of aspirin | journal = Texas Heart Institute Journal | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 392–3 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17948100 | pmc = 1995051 }}</ref>

===Compendial status===
* [[United States Pharmacopeia]]<ref name=asa>{{cite web|publisher=[[Sigma Aldrich]] |title=Aspirin |url=https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/sigma/a2093 |access-date=24 January 2022 }}</ref>
* [[British Pharmacopoeia]]<ref name=ibp>{{cite web |publisher=[[British Pharmacopoeia]] |title=Index BP 2009 |url=http://www.pharmacopoeia.co.uk/pdf/2009_index.pdf |access-date=13 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411071437/http://www.pharmacopoeia.co.uk/pdf/2009_index.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2009}}</ref>