Editing Anglo-Saxons (section)

==== Conquest of England: Danes, Norwegians and Normans (1016–1066) ====
In the 11th century, there were three conquests: one by Cnut on October 18, 1016; the second was an unsuccessful attempt of [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] in September, 1066; and the third was conducted by [[William the Conqueror|William of Normandy]] in October, 1066 at Hastings. The consequences of each conquest changed the Anglo-Saxon culture. Politically and chronologically, the texts of this period are not Anglo-Saxon; linguistically, those written in English (as opposed to Latin or French, the other official written languages of the period) moved away from the late West Saxon standard that is called "Old English". Yet neither are they "Middle English"; moreover, as Treharne explains, for around three-quarters of this period, "there is barely any 'original' writing in English at all". These factors have led to a gap in scholarship, implying a discontinuity either side of the Norman Conquest, however this assumption is being challenged.<ref>Treharne, Elaine. Living Through Conquest: The Politics of Early English, 1020–1220. [[Oxford University Press]], 2012.</ref>

At first sight, there would seem little to debate. Cnut appeared to have adopted wholeheartedly the traditional role of Anglo-Saxon kingship.<ref>[[Robin Fleming]] ''Kings and lords in Conquest England''. Vol. 15. Cambridge University Press, 2004.</ref> However, an examination of the laws, homilies, wills, and charters dating from this period suggests that as a result of widespread aristocratic death and the fact that Cnut did not systematically introduce a new landholding class, major and permanent alterations occurred in the Saxon social and political structures.<ref>Mack, Katharin. "Changing thegns: Cnut's conquest and the English aristocracy." ''Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies'' (1984): 375–387.</ref> Eric John remarks that for Cnut "the simple difficulty of exercising so wide and so unstable an empire made it necessary to practise a delegation of authority against every tradition of English kingship".<ref>Eric John, ''Orbis Britanniae'' (Leicester, 1966), p. 61.</ref> The disappearance of the aristocratic families which had traditionally played an active role in the governance of the realm, coupled with Cnut's choice of [[thegn]]ly advisors, put an end to the balanced relationship between monarchy and aristocracy so carefully forged by the West Saxon Kings.

[[Edward the Confessor|Edward]] became king in 1042, and given his upbringing might have been considered a Norman by those who lived across the English Channel. Following Cnut's reforms, excessive power was concentrated in the hands of the rival houses of [[Leofric, Earl of Mercia|Leofric of Mercia]] and [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex|Godwine of Wessex]]. Problems also came for Edward from the resentment caused by the king's introduction of Norman friends. A crisis arose in 1051 when Godwine defied the king's order to punish the men of Dover, who had resisted an attempt by [[Eustace II, Count of Boulogne|Eustace of Boulogne]] to quarter his men on them by force.<ref name="Maddicott, J. R. 2004">Maddicott, J. R. (2004). "Edward the Confessor's Return to England in 1041". English Historical Review (Oxford University Press) CXIX (482): 650–666.</ref> The support of Earl Leofric and [[Earl Siward]] enabled Edward to secure the outlawry of Godwine and [[House of Godwin|his sons]]; and William of Normandy paid Edward a visit during which Edward may have promised William succession to the English throne, although this Norman claim may have been mere propaganda. Godwine and his sons came back the following year with a strong force, and the magnates were not prepared to engage them in civil war but forced the king to make terms. Some unpopular Normans were driven out, including [[Robert of Jumièges|Archbishop Robert]], whose archbishopric was given to [[Stigand]]; this act supplied an excuse for the Papal support of William's cause.<ref name="Maddicott, J. R. 2004" />
[[File:Bayeux Tapestry WillelmDux.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Depiction of the [[Battle of Hastings]] (1066) on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]]]

The fall of England and the Norman Conquest is a multi-generational, multi-family succession problem caused in great part by Athelred's incompetence. By the time William of Normandy, sensing an opportunity, landed his invading force in 1066, the elite of Anglo-Saxon England had changed, although much of the culture and society had stayed the same.

{{blockquote|''Ða com Wyllelm eorl of Normandige into Pefnesea on Sancte Michæles mæsseæfen, sona þæs hi fere wæron, worhton castel æt Hæstingaport. Þis wearð þa Harolde cynge gecydd, he gaderade þa mycelne here, com him togenes æt þære haran apuldran, Wyllelm him com ongean on unwær, ær þis folc gefylced wære. Ac se kyng þeah him swiðe heardlice wið feaht mid þam mannum þe him gelæstan woldon, þær wearð micel wæl geslægen on ægðre healfe. Ðær wearð ofslægen Harold kyng, Leofwine eorl his broðor, Gyrð eorl his broðor, fela godra manna, þa Frencyscan ahton wælstowe geweald.''}}

{{blockquote|Then came William, the Earl of Normandy, into Pevensey on the evening of St Michael's mass, and soon as his men were ready, they built a fortress at Hasting's port. This was told to King Harold, and he gathered then a great army and came towards them at the Hoary Apple Tree, and William came upon him unawares before his folk were ready. But the king nevertheless withstood him very strongly with fighting with those men who would follow him, and there was a great slaughter on either side. Then Harald the King was slain, and Leofwine the Earl, his brother, and Gyrth, and many good men, and the Frenchmen held the place of slaughter.<ref>Swanton, Michael (1996). ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''. New York: [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-415-92129-9}}</ref>}}