Editing Zenobia (section)

====Expansion====
In 269, while [[Claudius Gothicus]] (Gallienus' successor) was defending the borders of [[Roman Italy|Italy]] and the [[Balkans]] against Germanic invasions, Zenobia was cementing her authority; Roman officials in the East were caught between loyalty to the emperor and Zenobia's increasing demands for allegiance.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} The timing and rationale of the queen's decision to use military force to strengthen her authority in the East is unclear;{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} scholar [[Gary K. Young]] suggested that Roman officials refused to recognize Palmyrene authority, and Zenobia's expeditions were intended to maintain Palmyrene dominance.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 163]}} Another factor may have been the weakness of Roman central authority and its corresponding inability to protect the provinces, which probably convinced Zenobia that the only way to maintain stability in the East was to control the region directly.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 163]}} The historian [[Jacques Schwartz]] tied Zenobia's actions to her desire to protect Palmyra's economic interests, which were threatened by Rome's failure to protect the provinces.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} Also, according to Schwartz, the economic interests conflicted; [[Bosra|Bostra]] and Egypt received trade which would have otherwise passed through Palmyra.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 164]}} The Tanukhids near Bostra and the merchants of [[Alexandria]] probably attempted to rid themselves of Palmyrene domination, triggering a military response from Zenobia.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 164]}}

=====Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea=====
[[File:Bosra-Ruins.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Extensive ruins|[[Bostra]], [[Sack of Bostra|sacked]] by Palmyra in 270]]
In the spring of 270, while Claudius was fighting the [[Goths]] in the mountains of [[Thrace]], Zenobia sent her general [[Zabdas|Septimius Zabdas]] to Bosra (capital of the province of [[Arabia Petraea]]);{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} the queen's timing seems intentional.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA114 114]}} In Arabia the Roman governor (''dux''), [[Trassus]] (commanding the [[Legio III Cyrenaica]]),{{#tag:ref|Although his name is only mentioned by [[John Malalas]], archaeological evidence supports the Arabian campaign.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109]}}|group=note}} confronted the Palmyrenes and was routed and killed.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} Zabdas [[Sack of Bostra|sacked the city]], and destroyed the temple of [[Amun#Greece|Zeus Hammon]], the legion's revered shrine.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} A Latin inscription after the fall of Zenobia attests to its destruction:{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}} "The temple of Iuppiter Hammon, destroyed by the Palmyrene enemies, which&nbsp;... rebuilt, with a silver statue and iron doors (?)".{{sfn|Dodgeon|Lieu|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=3gGKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} The city of [[Umm el-Jimal]] may have also been destroyed by the Palmyrenes in connection with their efforts to subjugate the Tanukhids.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}}

After his victory, Zabdas marched south along the [[Jordan Rift Valley|Jordan Valley]] and apparently met little opposition.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} There is evidence that [[Petra]] was attacked by a small contingent which penetrated the region.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}} Arabia and [[Judea (Roman province)|Judaea]] were eventually subdued.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}} Palmyrene dominance of Arabia is confirmed by many milestones bearing Vaballathus' name.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109]}} Syrian subjugation required less effort because Zenobia had substantial support there, particularly in Antioch,{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63]}} Syria's traditional capital.{{sfn|Nakamura|1993|p= [http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431 141]}} The invasion of Arabia coincided with the cessation of coin production in Claudius' name by the Antiochean [[Mint (facility)|mint]], indicating that Zenobia had begun tightening her grip on Syria.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63]}} By November 270, the mint began issuing coinage in Vaballathus' name.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA106 106]}}

The Arabian milestones presented the Palmyrene king as a Roman governor and commander, referring to him as ''[[vir clarissimus]] [[Rex (title)|rex]] [[consul]] imperator dux Romanorum''.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109]}} The assumption of such titles was probably meant to legitimize Zenobia's control of the province, not yet a usurpation of the imperial title.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110]}} Until now, Zenobia could say that she was acting as a representative of the emperor (who was securing the eastern lands of the empire) while the Roman monarch was preoccupied with struggles in Europe.{{sfn|Bryce|Birkett-Rees|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gDAFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 282]}} Although Vaballathus' use of the titles amounted to a claim to the imperial throne, Zenobia could still justify them and maintain a mask of subordination to Rome;{{sfn|Kulikowski|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=XZokDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT158 158]}} an ''"imperator"'' was a commander of troops, not the equal of an emperor (''"imperator caesar"'').{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110]}}

=====Annexation of Egypt and the campaigns in Asia Minor=====
{{main|Palmyrene invasion of Egypt}}
The invasion of Egypt is sometimes explained by Zenobia's desire to secure an alternative trade route to the Euphrates, which was cut because of the war with Persia.{{sfn|Smith II|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5cMho6zFckC&pg=PA178 178]}} This theory ignores the fact that the Euphrates route was only partially disrupted, and overlooks Zenobia's ambition.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}} The date of the campaign is uncertain; Zosimus placed it after the [[Battle of Naissus]] and before Claudius' death, which sets it in the summer of 270.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA113 113]}} Watson, emphasizing the works of Zonaras and Syncellus and dismissing Zosimus' account, places the invasion in October 270 (after Claudius' death).{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA190 190]}} According to Watson, the occupation of Egypt was an opportunistic move by Zenobia (who was encouraged by the news of Claudius' death in August).{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}}{{sfn|Teixidor|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA204 204]}} Zenobia was declared Queen of Egypt after [[Palmyrene invasion of Egypt]].{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA304 304]}} The appearance of the Palmyrenes on Egypt's eastern frontier would have contributed to unrest in the province, whose society was fractured; Zenobia had supporters and opponents among local Egyptians.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}}

[[File:Palmyrene Empire.png|thumb|alt=Color-coded map of Palmyra|Palmyra at its zenith in 271]]
The Roman position was worsened by the absence of Egypt's [[Praetorian prefect|prefect]], [[Tenagino Probus]], who was battling pirates.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ecfiAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA113 113]}} According to Zosimus, the Palmyrenes were helped by an Egyptian general named Timagenes; Zabdas moved into Egypt with 70,000 soldiers, defeating an army of 50,000 Romans.{{sfn|Teixidor|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA204 204]}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA114 114]}} After their victory, the Palmyrenes withdrew their main force and left a 5,000-soldier garrison.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA114 114]}} By early November,{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}} Tenagino Probus returned and assembled an army; he expelled the Palmyrenes and regained Alexandria, prompting Zabdas to return.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA114 114]}} The Palmyrene general aimed a thrust at Alexandria, where he seems to have had local support; the city fell into Zabdas' hands, and the Roman prefect fled south.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}} The last battle was at the [[Babylon Fortress]], where Tenagino Probus took refuge; the Romans had the upper hand, since they chose their camp carefully.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63]}} Timagenes, with his knowledge of the land, ambushed the Roman rear; Tenagino Probus committed suicide, and Egypt became part of Palmyra.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63]}} In the ''Historia Augusta '' the [[Blemmyes]] were among Zenobia's allies,{{sfn|Stoneman|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA122 122]}} and Gary K. Young cites the Blemmyes attack and occupation of [[Qift|Coptos]] in 268 as evidence of a Palmyrene-Blemmyes alliance.{{sfn|Young|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E5yCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}}

Only Zosimus mentioned two invasions, contrasting with many scholars who argue in favor of an initial invasion and no retreat (followed by a reinforcement, which took Alexandria by the end of 270).{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA114 114]}} During the Egyptian campaign, Rome was entangled in a succession crisis between Claudius' brother [[Quintillus]] and the general [[Aurelian]]. Egyptian [[List of ancient Egyptian papyri|papyri]] and coinage confirm Palmyrene rule in Egypt; the papyri stopped using the [[regnal year]]s of the emperors from September to November 270, due to the succession crisis. By December regnal dating was resumed, with the papyri using the regnal years of the prevailing emperor Aurelian and Zenobia's son Vaballathus. Egyptian coinage was issued in the names of Aurelian and the Palmyrene king by November 270.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA106 106]}} There is no evidence that Zenobia ever visited Egypt.{{sfn|Teixidor|2005|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oZcr7SzzVYYC&pg=PA205 205]}}

Although the operation may have commenced under Septimius Zabbai, Zabdas' second-in-command, the invasion of Asia Minor did not fully begin until Zabdas' arrival in the spring of 271.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}} The Palmyrenes annexed [[Galatia]] and, according to Zosimus, reached [[Ancyra]].{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA116 116]}} [[Bithynia]] and the [[Cyzicus]] mint remained beyond Zenobia's control, and her attempts to subdue [[Chalcedon]] failed.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}} The Asia Minor campaign is poorly documented, but the western part of the region did not become part of the queen's authority;{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA116 116]}}{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA117 117]}} no coins with Zenobia or Vaballathus' portraits were minted in Asia Minor, and no royal Palmyrene inscriptions have been found.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA117 117]}} By August 271 Zabdas was back in Palmyra, with the [[Palmyrene Empire|Palmyrene empire]] at its zenith.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}}