Editing Wildfire (section)

== Detection ==
{{See also|Remote sensing}}
[[File:Drymountainlookout1930.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A four-legged tower with a small at the top, next to two one-story buildings. The tower is four stories tall. Trees are at either side, and in the foreground, there are rocks, some vegetation, and a rough trail.|Dry Mountain Fire Lookout in the [[Ochoco National Forest]], [[Oregon]], US circa 1930]]

The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting.<ref>San-Miguel-Ayanz, ''et al.'', 362.</ref> Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger.<ref name="Integration">{{cite journal | url = http://www.westerndisastercenter.org/DOCUMENTS/PERS_PAPER.pdf | title = An Integration of Remote Sensing, GIS, and Information Distribution for Wildfire Detection and Management | journal = Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing | volume = 64 | issue = 10 | date = October 1998 | pages = 977–985 | access-date = 26 June 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090816123809/http://www.westerndisastercenter.org/DOCUMENTS/PERS_PAPER.pdf | archive-date = 16 August 2009 }}</ref> [[Fire lookout tower]]s were used in the United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones, [[carrier pigeon]]s, and [[heliograph]]s.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://archives.cbc.ca/version_print.asp?page=1&IDLan=1&IDClip=4917&IDDossier=849&IDCat=346&IDCatPa=261 | title = Radio communication keeps rangers in touch | publisher = Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) Digital Archives | date = 21 August 1957 | access-date = 6 February 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090813160525/http://archives.cbc.ca/version_print.asp?page=1&IDLan=1&IDClip=4917&IDDossier=849&IDCat=346&IDCatPa=261 | archive-date = 13 August 2009 }}</ref> Aerial and land photography using [[instant camera]]s were used in the 1950s until [[infrared photography|infrared scanning]] was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at a remote site and sent via overnight mail to the [[incident commander|fire manager]]. During the [[Yellowstone fires of 1988]], a data station was established in [[West Yellowstone]], permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours.<ref name="Integration" />

Public hotlines, [[fire lookout]]s in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by [[asthenopia|operator fatigue]], time of day, time of year, and geographic location. Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as a possible resolution to human operator error. These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by [[Geographic information system|GIS]] data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless [[Incident Command System|Incident Command Centers]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.forestry.state.al.us/WildfireControl.aspx?bv=1&s=0 | title = Wildfire Detection and Control | publisher = Alabama Forestry Commission | access-date = 12 January 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081120135635/http://www.forestry.state.al.us/WildfireControl.aspx?bv=1&s=0 | archive-date = 20 November 2008 }}</ref>

=== Local sensor networks ===

A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation, a strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local [[sensor network]]. Detection systems may include [[wireless sensor network]]s that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cse.seas.wustl.edu/techreportfiles/getreport.asp?399 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070103233730/http://cse.seas.wustl.edu/techreportfiles/getreport.asp?399 | archive-date = 3 January 2007 | format = PDF | title = Mobile Agent Middleware for Sensor Networks: An Application Case Study | date = 29 November 2004 | last = Fok | first = Chien-Liang | author2 = Roman, Gruia-Catalin | author3 = Lu, Chenyang | name-list-style = amp | publisher = Washington University in St. Louis | access-date = 15 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | date = July 2005 | last = Chaczko | first = Z. | author2 = Ahmad, F. | title = Third International Conference on Information Technology and Applications (ICITA'05) | chapter = Wireless Sensor Network Based System for Fire Endangered Areas | volume = 2 | issue = 4–7 | pages = 203–207 | doi = 10.1109/ICITA.2005.313 | isbn = 978-0-7695-2316-3 | s2cid = 14472324 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://firecenter.umt.edu/index.php/project/Wireless-Weather-Sensor-Networks-for-Fire-Management/ID/461d72ad/fuseaction/whatWeDo.projectDetail.htm | title = Wireless Weather Sensor Networks for Fire Management | publisher = University of Montana – Missoula | access-date = 19 January 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090404124819/http://firecenter.umt.edu/index.php/project/Wireless-Weather-Sensor-Networks-for-Fire-Management/ID/461d72ad/fuseaction/whatWeDo.projectDetail.htm | archive-date = 4 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.libelium.com/libeliumworld/articles/101031032811 |title=Detecting Forest Fires using Wireless Sensor Networks with Waspmote |publisher=Libelium Comunicaciones Distribuidas S.L. |first=Javier |last=Solobera |date=9 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417133344/http://www.libelium.com/libeliumworld/articles/101031032811 |archive-date=17 April 2010 |access-date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or ''tree-rechargeable'': able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/trees-0923.html | title = Preventing forest fires with tree power | date = 23 September 2008 | access-date = 15 January 2009 | last = Thomson | first = Elizabeth A. | publisher = Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) News | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081229071819/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/trees-0923.html | archive-date = 29 December 2008 }}</ref> Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as the infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as [[night vision]], brightness detection, and color change detection may also be incorporated into [[sensor array]]s.<ref>"Evaluation of three wildfire smoke detection systems", 6</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://advancement.sdsu.edu/marcomm/news/releases/spring2005/pr062305.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060901120511/http://advancement.sdsu.edu/marcomm/news/releases/spring2005/pr062305.html | archive-date = 1 September 2006 | title = SDSU Tests New Wildfire-Detection Technology | date = 23 June 2005 | place = San Diego, CA | publisher = San Diego State University | access-date = 12 January 2009}}</ref><ref>San-Miguel-Ayanz, ''et al.'', 366–369, 373–375.</ref>

The [[Department of Natural Resources]] signed a contract with [[PanoAI]] for the installation of 360 degree 'rapid detection' cameras around the Pacific northwest, which are mounted on cell towers and are capable of continuous monitoring of a {{convert|15|mi|km|order=flip|adj=on}} radius.<ref>{{Cite web |last=burgos |first=matthew |date=1 August 2023 |title=is artificial intelligence the future of wildfire prevention? |url=https://www.designboom.com/technology/pano-ai-artificial-intelligence-cameras-wildfire-prevention-08-02-2023/ |access-date=14 August 2023 |website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine |language=en |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814163523/https://www.designboom.com/technology/pano-ai-artificial-intelligence-cameras-wildfire-prevention-08-02-2023/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, [[Sensaio Tech]], based in Brazil and Toronto, has released a sensor device that continuously monitors 14 different variables common in forests, ranging from soil temperature to salinity. This information is connected live back to clients through dashboard visualizations, while mobile notifications are provided regarding dangerous levels.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 August 2023 |title=Devastating wildfires spur new detection systems |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66266186 |access-date=14 August 2023 |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814163519/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-66266186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Satellite and aerial monitoring ===
[[File:2020_Cordoba_NASA_FIRMS.jpg|thumb|The [[2020 Córdoba wildfires]] imaged by [[NASA]]'s [[Fire Information for Resource Management System|FIRMS]]]]
[[Satellite]] and aerial monitoring through the use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires.<ref>{{cite web | author = Rochester Institute of Technology | url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/04/030410072055.htm | title = New Wildfire-detection Research Will Pinpoint Small Fires From 10,000 feet | website = ScienceDaily | date = 4 October 2003 | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080605223918/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/04/030410072055.htm | archive-date = 5 June 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaLP/SEMEAE0CYTE_index_0.html | title = Airborne campaign tests new instrumentation for wildfire detection | date = 11 October 2006 | publisher = European Space Agency | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090813163219/http://www.esa.int/esaLP/SEMEAE0CYTE_index_0.html | archive-date = 13 August 2009 }}</ref> Satellite-mounted sensors such as [[Envisat]]'s [[AATSR|Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer]] and [[European Remote-Sensing Satellite]]'s Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than {{convert|39|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMRBH9ATME_Protecting_0.html | title = World fire maps now available online in near-real time | publisher = European Space Agency | date = 24 May 2006 | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090813163601/http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMRBH9ATME_Protecting_0.html | archive-date = 13 August 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEMEKMZBYTE_index_0.html | title = Earth from Space: California's 'Esperanza' fire | date = 11 March 2006 | publisher = European Space Agency | access-date = 12 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081110113923/http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEMEKMZBYTE_index_0.html | archive-date = 10 November 2008 }}</ref> The [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]'s Hazard Mapping System combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as [[Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite]] (GOES), [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]] (MODIS), and [[Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer]] (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/PS/FIRE/hms.html | publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Satellite and Information Service | title = Hazard Mapping System Fire and Smoke Product | access-date = 15 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090114044127/http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/PS/FIRE/hms.html | archive-date = 14 January 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Swarm">{{cite journal | title = A probabilistic zonal approach for swarm-inspired wildfire detection using sensor networks | last = Ramachandran | first = Chandrasekar | author2 = Misra, Sudip | author3 = Obaidat, Mohammad S. | author3-link = Mohammad S. Obaidat | name-list-style = amp | journal = Int. J. Commun. Syst. | volume = 21 | issue = 10 | pages = 1047–1073 | date = 9 June 2008 | doi = 10.1002/dac.937 }}</ref> However, satellite detection is prone to offset errors, anywhere from {{convert|2|to|3|km|mi|sigfig=1|sp=us}} for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to {{convert|12|km|mi|sp=us}} for GOES data.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050180316_2005176776.pdf | title = Automated Wildfire Detection Through Artificial Neural Networks | last = Miller | first = Jerry | author2 = Borne, Kirk | author3 = Thomas, Brian | author4 = Huang Zhenping | author5 = Chi, Yuechen | name-list-style = amp | publisher = NASA | access-date = 15 January 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100522013312/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050180316_2005176776.pdf | archive-date = 22 May 2010 }}</ref> Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Forest fire detection system based on a ZigBee wireless sensor network | date = September 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s11461-008-0054-3 | pages = 369–374 | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | journal = Frontiers of Forestry in China | last = Zhang | first = Junguo | author2 = Li, Wenbin | author3 = Han, Ning | author4 = Kan, Jiangming | s2cid = 76650011 | name-list-style = amp }}</ref> [[Global Forest Watch]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vizzuality |title=Forest Fires & Climate Change {{!}} Effects of Deforestation on Wildfires {{!}} GFW |url=https://www.globalforestwatch.org/topics/fires/ |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=www.globalforestwatch.org |language=en |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725135120/https://www.globalforestwatch.org/topics/fires/ |url-status=live }}</ref> provides detailed daily updates on fire alerts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Earth Science Data Systems |first=NASA |date=28 January 2016 |title=VIIRS I-Band 375 m Active Fire Data |url=https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/find-data/near-real-time/firms/viirs-i-band-375-m-active-fire-data |access-date=5 July 2023 |website=Earthdata |language=en |archive-date=12 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812111232/https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/find-data/near-real-time/firms/viirs-i-band-375-m-active-fire-data |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2015 a new fire detection tool is in operation at the [[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) [[United States Forest Service|Forest Service]] (USFS) which uses data from the [[Suomi NPP|Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership]] (NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA-FIRMS |url=https://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/map/ |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov |language=en |archive-date=26 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726083155/https://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/map/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2014, an international campaign was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an early adopter of the VIIRS 375&nbsp;m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA VIIRS Land Products |url=https://viirsland.gsfc.nasa.gov/Val/Fire_Val.html |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=viirsland.gsfc.nasa.gov |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825060218/https://viirsland.gsfc.nasa.gov/Val/Fire_Val.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since 2021 NASA has provided active fire locations in [[near real-time]] via the [[Fire Information for Resource Management System]] (FIRMS).

The increased prevalence of wildfires has led to proposals deploy technologies based on [[artificial intelligence]] for early detection, prevention, and prediction of wildfires.<ref>{{Cite web |last=London |first=King's College |title=Faster satellite detection of extreme wildfires imminent |url=https://www.kcl.ac.uk/news/faster-satellite-detection-of-extreme-wildfires-eminent |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=King's College London |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Wildfire startup puts AI-powered eyes in the forest to watch for new blazes and provide rapid alerts |date=9 August 2023 |url=https://www.geekwire.com/2023/wildfire-startup-puts-ai-powered-eyes-in-the-forest-to-watch-for-new-blazes-and-provide-rapid-alerts/ |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814163517/https://www.geekwire.com/2023/wildfire-startup-puts-ai-powered-eyes-in-the-forest-to-watch-for-new-blazes-and-provide-rapid-alerts/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transport Canada SFOC Granted to Support Wildfire Suppression |date=August 2023 |url=https://www.unmannedsystemstechnology.com/2023/08/transport-canada-sfoc-granted-to-support-wildfire-suppression/ |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814163518/https://www.unmannedsystemstechnology.com/2023/08/transport-canada-sfoc-granted-to-support-wildfire-suppression/ |url-status=live }}</ref>