Editing Vikings (section)

===Literature and language===
{{See also|Old Norse|Saga}}
[[File:Lbs fragm 82, 0001v - 1.jpg|thumb|One of the few surviving manuscript leaves from the [[Heimskringla Saga]]s, written by [[Snorri Sturluson]] c. 1230. The leaf tells of [[Olaf II of Norway|King Ólafur]].]]

The most important primary sources on the Vikings are contemporary texts from Scandinavia and regions where the Vikings were active.<ref>Hall, pp. 8–11</ref> Writing in [[Latin]] letters was introduced to Scandinavia with Christianity, so there are few native documentary sources from Scandinavia before the late 11th and early 12th centuries.<ref>Lindqvist, pp. 160–61</ref> The Scandinavians did write inscriptions in [[runes]], but these were usually very short and formulaic. Most contemporary documentary sources consist of texts written in Christian and Islamic communities outside Scandinavia, often by authors who had been negatively affected by Viking activity.

Later writings on the Vikings and the Viking Age can also be important for understanding them and their culture, although they need to be treated cautiously. After the consolidation of the church and the assimilation of Scandinavia and its colonies into mainstream medieval [[Christian culture]] in the 11th and 12th centuries, native written sources began to appear in Latin and Old Norse. In the Viking colony of Iceland, extraordinary vernacular literature blossomed in the 12th through 14th centuries, and many traditions connected with the Viking Age were written down for the first time in the [[Saga|Icelandic sagas]]. A literal interpretation of these medieval prose narratives about the Vikings and the Scandinavian past is doubtful, but many specific elements remain worthy of consideration, such as the great quantity of [[skald]]ic poetry attributed to [[Poet laureate|court poets]] of the 10th and 11th centuries, the exposed family trees, the self-images, and the ethical values that are contained in these literary writings.

Indirectly, the Vikings have also left a window open onto their language, culture and activities, through many Old Norse place names and words found in their former sphere of influence. Some of these place names and words are still in direct use today, almost unchanged, and shed light on where they settled and what specific places meant to them. Examples include place names like [[Egilsay]] (from ''Eigils ey'' meaning Eigil's Island), [[Ormskirk]] (from ''Ormr kirkja'' meaning Orms Church or Church of the Worm), [[Meols]] (from ''merl'' meaning Sand Dunes), [[Snaefell]] (Snow Fell), [[Ravenscar, North Yorkshire|Ravenscar]] (Ravens Rock), [[Vinland]] (Land of Wine or Land of [[Winberry]]), [[Kaupanger]] (Market Harbour), [[Tórshavn]] (Thor's Harbour), and the religious centre of [[Odense]], meaning a place where [[Odin]] was worshipped. Viking influence is also evident in concepts like the present-day parliamentary body of the [[Tynwald]] on the Isle of Man.

Many common words in everyday English language stem from the Old Norse of the Vikings and give an opportunity to understand their interactions with the people and cultures of the British Isles.<ref>See [[List of English words of Old Norse origin]] for further explanations on specific words.</ref> In the [[Northern Isles]] of Shetland and Orkney, Old Norse completely replaced the local languages and over time evolved into the now extinct [[Norn language]]. Some modern words and names only emerge and contribute to our understanding after a more intense research of linguistic sources from medieval or later records, such as [[York]] (Horse Bay), [[Swansea]] ([[Sven|Sveinn]]'s Isle) or some of the place names in Normandy like [[Tocqueville (disambiguation)|Tocqueville]] (Toki's farm).<ref>See [[Norman toponymy]].</ref>

Linguistic and etymological studies continue to provide a vital source of information on the Viking culture, their social structure and history and how they interacted with the people and cultures they met, traded, attacked or lived with in overseas settlements.<ref>Henriksen, Louise Kæmpe: [http://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/the-sea-stallion-past-and-present/persons-and-themes/archaeology-and-history/nordic-place-names-in-europe/ Nordic place names in Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222032738/http://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/the-sea-stallion-past-and-present/persons-and-themes/archaeology-and-history/nordic-place-names-in-europe/ |date=22 February 2014 }} Viking Ship Museum Roskilde</ref><ref>[http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/changlang/activities/lang/vikings/vikinglang.html Viking Words] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203125117/http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/changlang/activities/lang/vikings/vikinglang.html |date=3 February 2007 }} The British Library</ref> A lot of Old Norse connections are evident in the modern-day languages of [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]].<ref>[http://nfi.ku.dk/english/ Department of Scandinavian Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208084718/http://nfi.ku.dk/english/ |date=8 February 2014 }} University of Copenhagen</ref> Old Norse did not exert any great influence on the [[Slavic languages]] in the Viking settlements of Eastern Europe. It has been speculated that the reason for this was the great differences between the two languages, combined with the Rus Vikings' more peaceful businesses in these areas, and the fact that they were outnumbered. The Norse named some of the [[Dnieper Rapids|rapids]] on the [[Dnieper River|Dnieper]], but this can hardly be seen from modern names.<ref>See information on the "Slavonic and Norse names of the Dnieper rapids" on [[Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks]].</ref><ref>Else Roesdahl (prof. in Arch. & Hist.): ''The Vikings'', Penguin Books (1999), {{ISBN|0-14-025282-7}}</ref>

====Runestones====
{{Main|Runestone}}
{{multiple image
| align     = right
| direction =
| total_width = 400
| image1    = U 240, Lingsberg.JPG
| width1    =
| alt1      = Lingberg Runestone
| caption1  = The [[Lingsberg Runestone]] in Sweden
| image2    = Jellingsten stor 2.jpg
| width2    =
| alt2      = Jelling Stones
| caption2  = Runic inscriptions of the larger of the [[Jelling Stones]] in Denmark
| footer    = Two types of Norse runestones from the Viking Age
}}
The Norse of the Viking Age could read and write and used a non-standardised alphabet, called ''runor'', built upon sound values. While there are few remains of runic writing on paper from the Viking era, thousands of stones with runic inscriptions have been found where Vikings lived. They are usually in memory of the dead, though not necessarily placed at graves. The use of ''runor'' survived into the 15th century, used in parallel with the Latin alphabet.

The runestones are unevenly distributed in Scandinavia: Denmark has 250 runestones, Norway has 50 while Iceland has none.<ref name="forskning.no">{{cite web
 |last=Olstad
 |first=Lisa
 |title=Ein minnestein for å hedre seg sjølv
 |publisher=forskning.no
 |date=16 December 2002
 |url=http://www.forskning.no/artikler/2002/desember/1039779970.6
 |access-date=20 April 2008
 |archive-date=29 August 2005
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050829041924/http://www.forskning.no/artikler/2002/desember/1039779970.6
 |url-status=dead
 }}</ref> Sweden has as many as between 1,700<ref name="forskning.no"/> and 2,500<ref name="Zilmer38">Zilmer 2005:38</ref> depending on the definition. The Swedish district of [[Uppland]] has the highest concentration with as many as 1,196 inscriptions in stone, whereas [[Södermanland]] is second with 391.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://realscandinavia.com/runestones-words-from-the-viking-age/|title=Runestones: Words from the Viking Age|date=4 April 2013|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523111457/http://realscandinavia.com/runestones-words-from-the-viking-age/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The majority of runic inscriptions from the Viking period are found in Sweden. Many runestones in Scandinavia record the names of participants in Viking expeditions, such as the [[Kjula Runestone#Sö 106|Kjula runestone]] that tells of extensive warfare in Western Europe and the [[Turinge Runestone]], which tells of a war band in Eastern Europe. Swedish runestones are mostly from the 11th century and often contain rich inscriptions, such as the [[Färentuna Runestones|Färentuna]], [[Hillersjö stone|Hillersjö]], [[Snottsta and Vreta stones|Snottsta and Vreta]] stones, which provide extensive detail on the life of one family, [[Gerlög and Inga]].{{sfn|Jesch|1991|p=53}}

Other runestones mention men who died on Viking expeditions. Among them are the [[England runestones]] (Swedish: ''Englandsstenarna''), which is a group of about 30 runestones in Sweden which refer to Viking Age voyages to England. They constitute one of the largest groups of runestones that mention voyages to other countries, and they are comparable in number only to the approximately 30 [[Greece Runestones]]<ref name="Jansson34">Jansson 1980:34.</ref> and the 26 [[Ingvar Runestones]], the latter referring to a Viking expedition to the Middle East.<ref>[[Carl L. Thunberg|Thunberg, Carl L.]] (2010). ''Ingvarståget och dess monument''. Göteborgs universitet. CLTS. {{ISBN|978-91-981859-2-8}}.</ref> They were engraved in [[Old Norse]] with the [[Younger Futhark]].<ref>Thunberg 2010:18–51.</ref> [[File:Pireuslejonet.jpg|thumb|[[Piraeus Lion]] drawing of curved [[lindworm]]. The runes on the lion tell of Viking warriors, most likely [[Varangians]], mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor.]]

The [[Jelling stones]] date from between 960 and 985. The older, smaller stone was raised by King [[Gorm the Old]], the last pagan king of Denmark, as a memorial honouring [[Thyra|Queen Thyre]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Jelling stones |year=2008 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302453/Jelling-stones |access-date=15 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620063813/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302453/Jelling-stones |archive-date=20 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The larger stone was raised by his son, [[Harald Bluetooth]], to celebrate the conquest of Denmark and Norway and the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. It has three sides: one with an animal image; one with an image of the crucified Jesus Christ; and a third bearing the following inscription:

{{blockquote|King Haraldr ordered these monuments made in memory of Gormr, his father, and in memory of Þyrvé [Thyre], his mother; that Haraldr who won for himself all of Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christian.<ref>{{cite Scandinavian Runic-text Database | edition=2020 | name=DR 42 | srdb=0d45c79a-c0d6-4937-9663-f044b31fcc65 | runor=a4071a93-512a-47d0-b645-cb2757f08fe0 | access-date=11 May 2025}}</ref>}}

Runic inscriptions are also found outside Scandinavia, in places as far as Greenland and Istanbul.{{sfn|Jesch|1991|p=44}} Runestones attest to voyages to locations such as [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]],<ref>baþum (Sm101), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> Greece (how the Vikings referred to the [[Byzantium]] territories generally),<ref>In the nominative: ''krikiaR'' (G216). In the genitive: ''girkha'' (U922$), ''k—ika'' (U104). In the dative: ''girkium'' (U1087†), ''kirikium'' (SöFv1954;20, U73, U140), ''ki(r)k(i)(u)(m)'' (Ög94$), ''kirkum'' (U136), ''krikium'' (Sö163, U431), ''krikum'' (Ög81A, Ög81B, Sö85, Sö165, Vg178, U201, U518), ''kri(k)um'' (U792), ''krikum'' (Sm46†, U446†), ''krkum'' (U358), ''kr''... (Sö345$A), ''kRkum'' (Sö82). In the accusative: ''kriki'' (Sö170). Uncertain case ''krik'' (U1016$Q). Greece also appears as ''griklanti'' (U112B), ''kriklati'' (U540), ''kriklontr'' (U374$), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> [[Khwaresm]],<ref>''Karusm'' (Vs1), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> [[Jerusalem]],<ref>''iaursaliR'' (G216), ''iursala'' (U605†), ''iursalir'' (U136G216, U605, U136), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> Italy (as Langobardland),<ref>''lakbarþilanti'' (SöFv1954;22), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> [[Serkland]] (i.e. the Muslim world),<ref>[[Carl L. Thunberg|Thunberg, Carl L.]] (2011). ''Särkland och dess källmaterial''. Göteborgs universitet. CLTS. pp. 23–58. {{ISBN|978-91-981859-3-5}}.</ref><ref>''serklat'' (G216), ''se(r)kl''... (Sö279), ''sirklanti'' (Sö131), ''sirk:lan:ti'' (Sö179), ''sirk*la(t)...'' (Sö281), ''srklant''- (U785), skalat- (U439), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> England<ref>''eklans'' (Vs18$), ''eklans'' (Sö83†), ''ekla-s'' (Vs5), ''enklans'' (Sö55), ''iklans'' (Sö207), ''iklanþs''
(U539C), ''ailati'' (Ög104), ''aklati'' (Sö166), ''akla''- (U616$), ''anklanti'' (U194), ''eg×loti'' (U812), ''eklanti'' (Sö46, Sm27), ''eklati'' (ÖgFv1950;341, Sm5C, Vs9), ''enklanti'' (DR6C), ''haklati'' (Sm101), ''iklanti'' (Vg20), ''iklati'' (Sm77), ''ikla-ti'' (Gs8), ''i...-ti'' (Sm104), ''ok*lanti'' (Vg187), ''oklati'' (Sö160), ''onklanti'' (U241), ''onklati'' (U344), -''klanti'' (Sm29$), ''iklot'' (N184), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> (including London),<ref>''luntunum'' (DR337$B), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> and various places in Eastern Europe. Viking Age inscriptions have also been discovered on the [[Manx runestones]] on the Isle of Man. Not all runestones are from the Viking Age, such as the [[Kingittorsuaq Runestone]] in Greenland, which dates to the early 14th century.{{sfn|Jesch|1991|p=44}}

====Runic alphabet usage in modern times====
The last known people to use the [[Runic alphabet]] were an isolated group of people known as the Elfdalians, that lived in the locality of [[Älvdalen]] in the Swedish province of [[Dalarna]]. They spoke the language of [[Elfdalian]], the language unique to [[Älvdalen]]. The Elfdalian language differentiates itself from the other Scandinavian languages as it evolved much closer to Old Norse. The people of [[Älvdalen]] stopped using runes as late as the 1920s. Usage of runes therefore survived longer in [[Älvdalen]] than anywhere else in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sciencenordic.com/language-linguistics-runes/isolated-people-in-sweden-only-stopped-using-runes-100-years-ago/1418110|title=Isolated people in Sweden only stopped using runes 100 years ago|first=Lise|last=Brix|date=21 May 2015|website=sciencenordic.com|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523111457/https://sciencenordic.com/language-linguistics-runes/isolated-people-in-sweden-only-stopped-using-runes-100-years-ago/1418110|url-status=live}}</ref> The last known record of the Elfdalian Runes is from 1929; they are a variant of the [[Dalecarlian runes]], runic inscriptions that were also found in [[Dalarna]].

Traditionally regarded as a [[Swedish language|Swedish]] dialect,<ref name="Stickel2010">{{cite book |last=Ekberg |first=Lena |editor=Gerhard Stickel |title=National, Regional and Minority Languages in Europe: Contributions to the Annual Conference 2009 of Efnil in Dublin |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA90 |access-date=6 March 2013 |year=2010 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=9783631603659 |pages=87–92 |chapter=The National Minority Languages in Sweden }}</ref> but by several criteria closer related to West Scandinavian dialects,<ref name=Kroonen>{{cite web|last1=Kroonen|first1=Guus|title=On the origins of the Elfdalian nasal vowels from the perspective of diachronic dialectology and Germanic etymology|url=http://inss.ku.dk/ansatte/?pure=files/35220983/elfdalian.pdf|website=Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics|date=8 August 2007 |publisher=University of Copenhagen|access-date=27 January 2016|quote=In many aspects, Elfdalian, takes up a middle position between East and West Nordic. However, it shares some innovations with West Nordic, but none with East Nordic. This invalidates the claim that Elfdalian split off from Old Swedish|archive-date=6 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206012822/http://inss.ku.dk/ansatte/?pure=files/35220983/elfdalian.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Elfdalian is a separate language by the standard of [[mutual intelligibility]].<ref name="Aftonbladet2007">{{cite news |author-last1=Dahl |author-first1=Östen |author-last2=Dahlberg |author-first2=Ingrid |author-last3=Delsing |author-first3=Lars-Olof |author-last4=Halvarsson |author-first4=Herbert |author-last5=Larsson |author-first5=Gösta |author-last6=Nyström |author-first6=Gunnar |author-last7=Olsson |author-first7=Rut |author-last8=Sapir |author-first8=Yair |author-last9=Steensland |author-first9=Lars |author-last10=Williams |author-first10=Henrik |title=Älvdalskan är ett språk – inte en svensk dialekt |date=8 February 2007 |language=sv |work=Aftonbladet |location=Stockholm |trans-title=Elfdalian is a language – not a Swedish dialect |url=http://www.aftonbladet.se/debatt/article11053696.ab |access-date=7 March 2013 |archive-date=25 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825120038/http://www.aftonbladet.se/debatt/article11053696.ab |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Dahl |first=Östen |title=Älvdalska – eget språk eller värsting bland dialekter? |date=December 2008 |language=sv |work=Språktidningen |trans-title=Elfdalian – its own language or an outstanding dialect? |url=http://spraktidningen.se/artiklar/2008/11/alvdalska-eget-sprak-eller-varsting-bland-dialekter |access-date=16 May 2013 |archive-date=7 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207110314/http://spraktidningen.se/artiklar/2008/11/alvdalska-eget-sprak-eller-varsting-bland-dialekter |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Zach |first=Kristine |year=2013 |title=Das Älvdalische – Sprache oder Dialekt? (Diplomarbeit) |trans-title=Elfdalian – Language or dialect? (Masters thesis) |publisher=[[University of Vienna]] |url=http://othes.univie.ac.at/26671/1/2013-02-27_0748117.pdf |language=de |access-date=25 April 2020 |archive-date=17 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217105905/http://othes.univie.ac.at/26671/1/2013-02-27_0748117.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Although there is no mutual intelligibility, due to schools and public administration in Älvdalen being conducted in Swedish, native speakers are bilingual and speak Swedish at a native level. Residents in the area who speak only Swedish as their sole native language, neither speaking nor understanding Elfdalian, are also common. [[Älvdalen]] can be said to have had its own alphabet during the 17th and 18th century. Today there are about 2,000–3,000 native speakers of Elfdalian.