Editing Scythians (section)

==Early (or Archaic) Scythian period==
{{main|Early Scythian period}}
===Ciscaucasian kingdom===
After their initial westwards migrations, and beginning around {{c.|750 BC}},{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=6-7}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=113}} the Scythians settled in the Ciscaucasian Steppe between the Araxes river to the east, the Caucasus mountains to the south, and the Maeotian Sea to the west,<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Petrenko|1995|p=6}}|{{harvnb|Harmatta|1996|p=181}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000a|p=84}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=103}}|{{harvnb|Yablonsky|2006|p=25}}}}</ref> and were especially concentrated in the valley of the [[Kuban (river)|Kuban river]],{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}} where would be located their kingdom's headquarters until the end of the 7th century BC:{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=32}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=109}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=117}} the Scythians who first arrived into Ciscaucasia did not consist of large numbers of people and they lived in a small area.{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=18}} During these early phases of Scythian history, Ciscaucasia was where the nomadic state and the culture of the Scythians developed,{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=6-9}} and it would remain the centre of the Scythian kingdom until around {{c.|600 BC}}.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=34-35}}

Since the Scythians needed agricultural and craft products from the native populations, they conquered these peoples and established interdependence systems: the Scythians obtained surplus through collecting tribute from the populations of the native [[Koban culture|Koban]] and [[Maeotians|Maeotian]] cultures of Ciscaucasia,{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=18}} who provided various goods to the Scythians, such as agricultural products and crafted goods like clay and bronze vessels, various weapons, [[bridle]]s, and [[horse harness]] equipment;{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=9}} the Maeotian craftsmen especially made large wide-necked pots, jugs, mugs, and small basins for Scythian customers.{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=16}}

These interactions between the Scythians and Maeotians deepened through the 8th to 7th centuries BC so that it led to the creation of a mixed culture,{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=7}} and some of the local tribes were assimilated into the Scythians and therefore contributed to the growth of the Scythian population.{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=31}} This earliest phase of Scythian culture formed in the Ciscaucasian Steppe between {{c.|750}} and {{c.|700 BC}}.{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=7-8}}

===West Asia===
During the second half of the 8th century BC and the 7th century BC, the equestrian steppe nomads from Ciscaucasia expanded to the south into West Asia,{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=114}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=60}} beginning with the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=83}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=95-96}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=102}} The involvement of the steppe nomads in [[West Asia]] happened in the context of the growth of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], which had expanded from its core region of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] valleys to dominate a large territory in West Asia.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65-66}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=107}} Surrounding the Neo-Assyrian Empire were several smaller polities: [[Phrygia]] and [[Lydia]] in Anatolia; [[Babylon]] and [[Elam]] in the south; [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] in the southwest; [[Urartu]] in the north; the weaker states of [[Ellipi]] and [[Mannaea|Mannai]] in the east; and the city-states of the [[Medes]].{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=107}} Local border rulers negotiated for their own interests by vacillating between these various rival great powers.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65-66}}

This state of permanent [[social disruption]] caused by the rivalries of the great powers of West Asia proved to be an attractive source of opportunities for the [[Eurasian nomads|steppe nomads]];{{sfn|Grayson|1991a|p=128}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=31}} and so their aristocrats led their followers southwards across the Caucasus Mountains.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}} Thus, the Scythians and Cimmerians became active in West Asia in the 7th century BC,{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=99}} where they would vacillate between supporting either the Neo-Assyrian Empire or other local powers, and serve these as mercenaries, depending on what they considered to be in their interests.{{sfn|Grayson|1991a|p=128}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=69}}{{sfn|Kõiv|2022|p=265}} Some small groups of steppe nomads from Ciscaucasia might have acted since the 9th century BC in West Asia, which laid the ground for the later large scale movement of the Cimmerians and Scythians there.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=61}} There appears to have been very little direct connection between the migrations of the Cimmerians and the Scythians.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=113}} The Scythians became active in West Asia after arriving in Transcaucasia around {{c.|700 BC}}.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=96}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1990|p=99}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=103}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=114}}}}</ref> These nonetheless never lost contact with the core Scythian kingdom located in the Ciscaucasian Steppe.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}

[[File:Gold scythian belt title from Mingachevir, Azerbaijan.JPG|thumb|left|Gold Scythian belt title, [[Mingachevir|Mingəçevir]] (ancient [[Iškuza|Scythian kingdom]]), [[Azerbaijan]], 7th-4th century BC{{sfn|Baumer|2021|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_W01EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 98]}}{{sfn|Manoledakis|2021|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=An0vEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]}}]]
Once they had finally crossed into West Asia, the Scythians settled in eastern Transcaucasia and the northwest Iranian plateau,<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=19}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=23}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=62}}}}</ref> in the steppes of what is presently Azerbaijan, which became their centre operations until {{c.|600 BC}},{{sfn|Sulimirski|1954|p=282}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}} and this part of Transcaucasia settled by the Scythians consequently became known in the Akkadian sources from Mesopotamia as the "land of the Scythians" ({{lang|akk-x-neoassyr|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀}}}}, {{translit|akk-x-neoassyr|māt Iškuzaya}}) after them.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=62}} Unlike the Cimmerians, the Scythians in West Asia remained organised into a single polity.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=65}} Once the Scythians had expanded into Transcaucasia, craftsmen from this region also became their suppliers.{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=16}}

====Initial activities in West Asia====
The Scythian and Cimmerian movements into Anatolia and the Iranian Plateau would act as catalysts for the adoption of Eurasian nomadic military and equestrian equipments by various West Asian states:{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=69}} it was during the 7th and 6th centuries BCE that "Scythian-type" socketed arrowheads and [[Recurve bow|sigmoid bows]] ideal for use by mounted warriors were adopted throughout West Asia.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=135}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=92}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=69}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}}}</ref>

The Mannaean king Aḫšeri ({{reign|{{c.|675}}|{{c.|650 BC}}}}) welcomed the Cimmerians and the Scythians as useful allies against the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=747}} During the period corresponding to the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king [[Esarhaddon]] ({{reign|681|669 BC}}), the Scythians were active in association with Mannai and Media,{{sfn|Ivantchik|1999a|p=508}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2006|p=148}} with their first ever recorded mention from the Neo-Assyrian records of {{c.|680 BC}}.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=99}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=107}} Around this time, Aḫšēri was hindering operations by the Neo-Assyrian Empire between its own territory and Mannai.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=748}} During these attacks, the Scythians were able to reach and attack distant Neo-Assyrian provinces,<ref>{{unbulleted list|{{harvnb|Barnett|1982|p=358}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993a|pp=85–87}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|pp=747–748}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2023|p=214}}}}</ref> and on one occasion core territories.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993a|p=87}}{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=748-749}}

These forces were defeated some time between {{c.|680}} and {{c.|677 BC}} by Esarhaddon, who carried out a retaliatory campaign which reached deep into Median territory.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=103-104}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}} [[Išpakāya]], the Scythians' first knowwn king, was killed during this campaign, and he was succeeded by [[Bartatua]],<ref>{{unbulleted list|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=8}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1999c|p=517}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|1993b|pp=326–327}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|p=749}}}}</ref> with whom Esarhaddon might have immediately initiated negotiations.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=103}} By 672 BC, Bartatua had asked for the hand of the eldest daughter of Esarhaddon, the Neo-Assyrian princess [[Šērūʾa-ēṭirat]], and promised to form an alliance treaty with the Neo-Assyrian Empire in an act of careful diplomacy.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} Bartatua's marriage to Šērūʾa-ēṭirat required that he would pledge allegiance to Assyria as a [[vassal]], which made the Scythian presence in West Asia a nominal extension of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=172}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=565}} Henceforth, the Scythian kingdom remained a Neo-Assyrian ally.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=567}}

The eastern Cimmerians soon left the Iranian Plateau and retreated westwards into Anatolia.{{sfn|Fuchs|2023|p=752-}} Although Mannai had been powerful under Aḫšeri, this power had depended on his alliance with the Cimmerians and Scythians. Their absence allowed Esarhaddon's successor [[Ashurbanipal]] ({{reign|669|631 BC}}) to carry out a campaign against Mannai between 660 and 659 BC.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=132}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=115}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=71}}|{{harvnb|Fuchs|2023|pp=752–754}}}}</ref> Bartatua, acting as an intermediary,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=116}} annexed Mannai into the Scythian kingdom.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=28}} Following this, the centre of Scythian power in West Asia shifted to [[Sakez]] near [[Lake Urmia]],{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=132}}{{sfn|Barnett|1991|p=359}} where fertile pastures allowed the Scythians to rea large herds of horses.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Loehr|1955|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=132}}|{{harvnb|Barnett|1991|p=358}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=563}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=33}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=33}}}}</ref>

====West Asian influences on the Scythians====
The marital alliance, as well as the proximity of the Scythians to Assyrian-influenced states, placed the Scythians under the strong influence of [[Assyria#Culture|Assyrian culture]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=565}} Scythian culture and art absorbed various West Asian elements;{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=32}} Scythian dress and armour from this time, including in Cirscaucasia, reflect heavy influences from West Asia and the Iranian Plateau on Scythian culture during this period.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1985|p=169}}|{{harvnb|Petrenko|1995|p=16}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=109}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=115}}}}</ref>

Scythian rulers began emulating West Asian kings by using [[luxury goods]] as status markers.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=100}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=31}}{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=18}} the spoils acquired by the Scythians as diplomatic presents or as plunder was used to enhance their status back in the Ciscaucasian Steppe.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}} In addition, artistic concepts also enhanced the range of the craftsmen serving the Scythian aristocracy:{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=115}} the Scythians had absorbed West Asian tastes and customs{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=37}} such as the concept of the divine origin of royal power,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=569}} and as their material culture was absorbing West Asian elements, so was their art absorbing West Asian artistic modes of representing these.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=100}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=32}}

[[File:KulObaTreasure.jpg|thumb|The Scythian [[Snake-Legged Goddess]] and other artifacts, from [[Kul-Oba]].]]
Even West Asian horses were imported to Ciscaucasia.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}} It was also only when the Scythians expanded into West Asia that they became acquainted with iron smelting and forging, before which they were still a Bronze Age society until the late 8th century BC.{{sfn|Jettmar|1971|p=8}} The Scythians also borrowed the use of the [[Chariot|war chariots]]{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=16}} and of [[scale armour]] from West Asians,{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=156}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=581}} and Scythian warriors themselves obtained [[iron]] weapons and military experience during their stay in West Asia.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=174}} Within the [[Scythian religion]], the goddess [[Artimpasa]] and the [[Snake-Legged Goddess]] were significantly influenced by the Mesopotamian and Syro-Canaanite religions.{{sfn|Ustinova|1999|pages=79-80}} 

==== Reign of Madyes ====
[[File:Kimerian.jpg|thumb|right|An Assyrian relief depicting Cimmerian mounted warriors]]
Bartatua was succeeded by his son with Šērūʾa-ēṭirat,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=565}} [[Madyes]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1999a|pp=508–509}} In 652 BC, Ashurbanipal's eldest brother [[Šamaš-šuma-ukin]], the [[List of kings of Babylon|king of Babylon]], rebelled against him.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=117}} although Ashurbanipal was able to suppress the Babylonian rebellion by 648 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was worn out by this crisis.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|pp=71–72}} Madyes helped Ashurbanipal repress the revolt by imposing Scythian hegemony on Media, which marked the beginning of a nearly 30-year long period of Scythian hegemony in West Asia.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Barnett|1991|p=359}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=114}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|pp=34, 113}}}}</ref>

[[File:Britishmuseumbintepehorserelief.jpg|thumb|A relief depicting mounted Lydian warriors on slab of marble from a tomb]]
During the 7th century BC, the bulk of the Cimmerians were operating in Anatolia.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=95}} The disturbances they caused led to many of the rulers of this region to break away from Neo-Assyrian overlordship, by the time of Ashurbanipal.{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=132}}{{sfn|Grayson|1991c|p=145}} In 644 BC, the Cimmerians and their allies the [[Treres]] defeated the [[Lydians]] and captured their capital city of [[Sardis]].{{sfn|Spalinger|1978a|pp=405-407}} Despite this and other setbacks, the Lydian kingdom was able to grow in power.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=74}} Around {{c.|635 BC}},{{sfn|Spalinger|1978a|p=408}} and with Neo-Assyrian approval,{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=9}} the Scythians under Madyes conquered Urartu,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=564}}{{sfn|Bouzek|2001|p=39}} entered Central Anatolia{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=129}} and defeated the Cimmerians alongside the Lydians.{{sfn|Parzinger|2004|p=23-24}}

Scythian power in West Asia thus reached its peak under Madyes, with the territories ruled by the Scythian kingdom extending from the Halys river in Anatolia in the west to the Caspian Sea and the eastern borders of Media in the east, and from Transcaucasia in the north to the northern borders of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the south.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1954|p=294}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=134}}|{{harvnb|Vaggione|1973|pp=528–529}}|{{harvnb|Spalinger|1978a|p=408}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2001|p=327}}}}</ref> Meanwhile, the new Lydian Empire became the dominant power of Anatolia.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=95}}

====Decline in West Asia====
[[File:Qyzqapan tomb relief 2.jpg|thumb|right|The Median king [[Cyaxares]]]]
The Neo-Assyrian Empire began unravelling after the death of Ashurbanipal because of civil wars under his successors [[Aššur-etil-ilāni]] ({{reign|631|627 BC}}) and [[Sîn-šar-iškun]] ({{reign|627|612 BC}}).{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=72-74}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} In 625 BC, the Median king [[Cyaxares]] invited the Scythian leaders to a feast, where he assassinated them all, thus overthrowing the Assyro-Scythian yoke over the Medes.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|pp=113–114}} Cyaxares was able to combine Scythian and Neo-Assyrian military practices to transform Media into the dominant power of the Iranian Plateau.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=122}}{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=73}} Other vassals of the Neo-Assyrian Empire started breaking away.{{sfn|Adalı|2017|p=73}}

The Scythians nevertheless took advantage of the temporary power vacuum to raid into the [[Levant]] some time between {{c.|626}} and {{c.|616 BC}}.{{sfn|Spalinger|1978b|p=49-50}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|1999a|p=516}} It is unknown whether this raid damaged the hold of the Neo-Assyrian Empire on its western provinces.{{sfn|Hawkins|1991|p=452-453}} The raid reached as far south as [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]],{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=28}} but it did not affect the [[kingdom of Judah]].{{sfn|Phillips|1972|p=134}} It reached the borders of the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Saite Egyptian kingdom]], after which the pharaoh [[Psamtik I]] met them and convinced them to turn back by offering them gifts.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|pp=130–134}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=21}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|pp=34, 113}}}}</ref> The Scythians sacked several cities in Palestine while retreating.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} After this, Scythian activities became limited to the eastern borderlands of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the importation of West Asian goods into the Ciscaucasian steppe.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}

By 615, the Scythian kingdom was operating as an ally of Cyaxares in [[Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire|his war against the Neo-Assyrian Empire]], possibly out of necessity.{{sfn|Oates|1991|p=180}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=567}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=28}} The Scythian kingdom supported the Medo-Babylonian conquests [[Fall of Assur|of Aššur]] in 614 BC, [[Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)|of Nineveh]] in 612 BC, and of the last Neo-Assyrian remnants [[Fall of Harran|at Ḫarran]] in 610 BC, which permanently destroyed the Neo-Assyrian Empire.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Loehr|1955|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=33}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=21}}|{{harvnb|Adalı|2017|p=74}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=39}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=114}}}}</ref>

By the {{c.|590s BC}}, the ascending Median Empire of Cyaxares annexed Urartu,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=124}}{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=33}} after having already annexed Mannai in 616 BC.{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=122}} This rise of Median power forced the Scythian kingdom to leave West Asia and retreat northward into the Ciscaucasian Steppe.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=9}}|{{harvnb|Phillips|1972|p=133}}|{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985|p=119}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=38}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1995|p=28}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=107}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=115}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=130}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=22}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=24}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=113}}}}</ref> Complex relations nevertheless continued to exist between the Median and Scythian kingdoms located.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=116}} 

Some splinter Scythian groups remained in eastern Transcaucasia and did not retreat to the north.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=108}} The area where they lived was called {{translit|xme|Sakašayana}} ({{lit|land inhabited by the Saka (that is, by Scythians)}}) by the Medes; this name was later recorded as [[Sakasene|{{transliteration|grc|Sakasēnē}}]] ({{lang|grc|Σακασηνη}}) by [[Ptolemy]].{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=100}} Later Graeco-Roman sources claimed that these Scythians left the Median kingdom and fled into the Lydian Empire, beginning [[Lydo-Median War|a conflict between Lydia and Media]]:{{sfn|Parzinger|2004|p=21}} These Scythians who had remained in West Asia had been completely assimilated into Median society and state by the mid-6th century BC.{{sfn|Young|1988a|p=20}}{{sfn|Petrenko|1995|p=8}}

===Initial Greek interactions===
The [[ancient Greeks]] had first been making expeditions in the [[Black Sea]] in the 8th century BC, and encounters with friendly native populations led to the formation of trading settlements.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=38-39}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=29-30}} Around {{c.|625 BC}}, the Scythians in the Pontic Steppe came into contact with Greek settlers{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} from [[Miletus]]{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=86}} who were starting to found their first colonies in the areas under Scythian rule on the northern coast of the Black Sea.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=86}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} The first wave of Greek colonisation of the north coast of the Black Sea consisted of attempts to develop trade with its native populations,{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=124}} and therefore involved the formation of [[Emporium (antiquity)|trading enclaves]] ({{langx|grc|εμπορια|translit=emporia}}; {{langx|la|emporia}}){{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=38}} this mutually beneficial process was largely peaceful.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=40}} The earliest {{translit|grc|emporia}} of the north Black Sea were built at [[Histria (ancient city)|Histria]], [[Tyras]],{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=124}} and especially on the [[Berezan Island|island of Borysthenēs]].<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=41}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1995|p=34}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=38}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=124}}}}</ref>

From the Greek settlements on the Black Sea coast, the Scythian aristocracy bought luxury goods which they used as status markers: wine and the various Greek vessels used to mix and drink it were especially imported in large quantities and were even used as [[grave goods]], while craftsmen in the Greek colonies manufactured items made of gold or [[electrum]] for Scythian patrons.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=128-129}} Once Scythian activities begun to decline in West Asia in the {{Circa|620s BC}} and ties between the Scythians and the Greek colonies started developing, the Scythians started buying Greek pottery imported from the Aegean islands.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=157}} Greek influences on the Scythians replaced West Asian ones from the beginning of the 6th century BC.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=109}}

===Pontic Steppe===
[[File:Scythian kingdom in the Pontic steppe - detailed.jpg|thumb|upright=2|The Scythian kingdom in the Pontic steppe at its maximum extent in the 6th century BC|alt=The Scythian kingdom in the Pontic steppe at its maximum extent in the 6th century BC]]
The Scythians during the 8th to 7th centuries BC conquered the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic]] and [[History of Crimea|Crimean]] Steppes.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1990|p=98}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=561}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=576}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=31}}|{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|p=38}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1995|p=28}}|{{harvnb|Batty|2007|p=205}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=117}}}}</ref> The initial Scythian population who settled in the Pontic Steppe was nevertheless small compared to the remainder in the Ciscaucasian Steppe.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=117}} Only after their expulsion from West Asia was the Pontic Steppe occupied by the Scythians on a large scale.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=117}} The was motivated by the presence of the threatening Median Empire to the south of Ciscaucasia, and by the wealthy Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=38}} The Scythian kingdom mediated trade between the [[Greek colonisation|Greek colonies]] to their south and the forest steppe to their north,{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=117}} which was carried out via the large rivers of the steppe.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}

The arriving Scythian conquerors established themselves as the ruling elite, or "Royal Scythians",{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=150}} over the local population and assimilated them into a single tribal identity while allowing them to continue their various lifestyles and economic organisations.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=49}} Many of the ethnically non-Scythian populations of the Pontic Steppe thus became designated by the term "{{translit|en|Scythians}}",{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=555}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=93}} after whom the Pontic Steppe also became known as {{translit|la|Scythia}}.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=2}}

==== Influence and campaigns from the Pontic Steppe ====
The westward migration of the Scythians was accompanied by the introduction into the north Pontic region of articles originating in the Siberian [[Karasuk culture]], such as distinctive swords and daggers, and which were characteristic of Early Scythian archaeological culture, consisting of cast bronze [[cauldron]]s, daggers, swords, and horse harnesses,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560-590}}{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=35}} which had themselves been influenced by Chinese art, with, for example, the "cruciform tubes" used to fix strap-crossings being of types which had initially been modelled by [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] artisans.{{sfn|Jettmar|1971|p=13}} The metallurgical workshops which produced the weapons and horse harnesses of the Scythians were located in the forest steppe.{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=34-35}}

It was at this time{{sfn|Jettmar|1971|p=13}} that the Scythians brought the knowledge of working [[iron]] which they had acquired in West Asia with them and introduced it into the Pontic Steppe, whose peoples were still Bronze Age societies until then.{{sfn|Jettmar|1971|p=8}} The Scythian establishment in the Pontic Steppe was especially facilitated by the iron weapons and the military experience they had obtained in West Asia.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=174}} Introduced into the Pontic Steppe during this period by the Scythians was the use of scale armour, which the Royal Scythian aristocracy had themselves borrowed from the West Asian peoples.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=156}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=581}}

[[File:Etruscan bronze funerary urn with Scythian mounted archer, mid-5th century BCE.jpg|thumb|Scythian mounted archer, [[Etruscan art]], early 5th century BC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bronze statuette of a Scythian mounted archer Etruscan, Campanian Classical |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/255955 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en |access-date=20 October 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102065036/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/255955 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Once the centre of Scythian power had shifted into the Pontic Steppe, from around {{c.|600 BC}} the Scythians often raided into the adjacent regions such as Central and Southeast Europe.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=109}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=130}}{{sfn|Batty|2007|p=205}} Attacks by the Scythians were directed not only at [[Transylvania]], [[Podolia]] and the [[Pannonian Steppe]],{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=109}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=113}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=119}} but also [[Southern Germany|southern Germania]], where they attacked the [[Lusatian culture]] and caused its destruction, and from there, until as far as [[Gaul]],{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=191}} and possibly even the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]]:{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=107}} these Scythian incursions were not unlike those of the [[Huns]] and the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] during the Migration Period, and of the [[Mongol invasion of Europe|Mongols]] in the mediaeval era, and were recorded in Etruscan bronze figurines depicting mounted Scythian archers.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=193}}

Multiple settlements of the Lusatian culture were destroyed by Scythian attacks during this period,{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000b|p=109}} and Scythian arrowheads have been found at several sites located in what are present-day [[Poland]] and [[Slovakia]], such as at [[Witaszkowo]], {{ill|Wicina (archaeological site)|lt=Wicina|pl|Wicina (stanowisko archeologiczne)}}, [[Strzegom]], {{ill|Polanowice, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship|lt=Polanowice|pl|Polanowice (województwo kujawsko-pomorskie)}}, and {{ill|Smolenice-Molpír|sk|Molpír}}. The Scythians also attacked, sacked and destroyed many of the wealthy and important Iron Age settlements{{sfn|Kramberger|2014|p=30}} located to the north and south of the [[Moravian Gate]] and belonging to the eastern group of the [[Hallstatt culture]], including that of Smolenice-Molpír, where Scythian-type arrows were found at this fortified hillfort's access points at the gate and the south-west side of the acropolis{{sfn|Kramberger|2014|p=15-16}}

Beginning in the 7th century BC, the Scythians also initiated numerous campaigns against the forest steppe tribes in the [[East European forest steppe]] to the north, who built large numbers of fortified settlements to repel these attacks.{{sfn|Melyukova|1995|p=32}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=119}}

====Foreign pressures====
Meanwhile, in West Asia, the Median, Lydian, and Neo-Babylonian empires had been replaced over the period of {{c.|550}} to {{c.|539 BC}} by the [[Achaemenid Empire]], founded by [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]], the king of the [[Persians]], who were a West Asian Iranic people distantly related to the Scythians.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=9}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=39}} The formation of the Achaemenid Empire constituted a further pressure from the south which forced the Scythians to remain to the north of the Caucasus.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=38}}

The establishment of the Pontic Scythian kingdom was a catalyst for the development of extensive trade connections, and it was only after the bulk of the Scythians had moved into the Pontic Steppe that more permanent Greek colonies were founded in this region:{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=174}} the second wave of Greek colonisation of the north coast of the Black Sea, which started soon after {{c.|600 BC}}, involved the formation of settlements possessing agricultural lands ({{langx|grc|χωραι|translit=khōrai}}) for migrants from [[Miletus]], [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], [[Phocaea]] and [[Megara]]{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=40}} seeking to establishing themselves to farm ({{langx|grc|αποικια|translit=apoikiai}}) in these regions where the land was fertile and the sea was plentiful.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=38}} The contacts between the Scythians and the Greeks led to the formation of a mixed Graeco-Scythian culture, such as among the "Hellenised Scythian" tribe of the Callipidae, the Histrians, the Geloni to the north of Scythia, and the Hellenised populations in and around Crimea.{{sfn|Batty|2007|p=197}}

[[File:Red-figured amphora with a Scythian Warrior attributed to the Berlin Painter Greek made in Athens 480-470 BCE.jpg|thumb|Red-figured amphora with a Scythian warrior, 480-470 BC, from Athens]]
In {{c.|547 BC}}, Cyrus II had conquered the Lydian Empire and brought Anatolia under the rule of his newly founded Persian Achaemenid Empire,{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=44}} consequently setting in march a large outflow of Greek refugees fleeing the Persian conquest, starting a third wave of Greek colonisation of the Black Sea, lasting from around {{c.|560 BC}} until {{c.|530 BC}}.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000a|p=38}} The importance of the Greek colonies of the north Black Sea coast drastically increased following the Persian Achaemenid Empire's [[First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt|conquest of Egypt]] in 525 BC, which deprived the states of Greece proper of the Egyptian grain that they depended on.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=124}}

The then dominant Greek power of [[Classical Athens|Athens]] therefore established very well defended new colonies on the north Black Sea coast near the already existing settlements, including [[Nymphaion (Crimea)|Nymphaion]] near Pantikapaion, [[Athēnaion (Crimea)|Athēnaion]] near [[Feodosia|Theodosia]], and [[Stratokleia]] near Phanagoreia, where grain of very good quality was produced.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=124-125}} The various Greek city-states of the [[Aegean Sea]] also imported fish, furs and slaves from Scythia during this period,{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=125}} and in the mid-6th century BC the Greeks started employing Scythian [[Mercenary|mercenaries]] in the form of detachments of mounted archers to support their own hoplite armies.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=53}}

To the east of the Scythian kingdom lived the [[Sauromatians]], who maintained good relations with the Scythian kingdom throughout its existence, from the 6th to 4th centuries BC.{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=111}} Scythian art exhibited influences from the [[Sauromatian culture]] and.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=3}} However, in the period from {{c.|550}} to {{c.|500 BC}}, the various Sauromatian communities living from the region stretching from the [[Ural Mountains]] to the Caspian Steppe came pressure from the Massagetae of Central Asia{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=123}} as a result of the campaigns of Cyrus II against this latter people.{{sfn|Jacobson|1995|p=39}} Due to these pressures, the Sauromatians took over the control of Ciscaucasia from the Scythian kingdom.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=572}}{{sfn|Parzinger|2004|p=68}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} By the 5th century BC, the Scythians had completely retreated from Ciscaucasia.{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=193}}

This process resulted in a wave of Sauromatian nomads immigrating near the Royal Scythians,{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985|p=175}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=111}} and intermarrying with the local nomad inhabitants.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=590}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=111}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|pp=120–121}}}}</ref> The arrival of this wave of Sauromatian immigration might possibly have caused the replacement of the older Scythian ruling dynasty of Spargapeithes by a new one, founded by [[Ariapeithes]].{{sfn|Alekseyev|2005|p=42}} Sauromatian immigration also introduced new social norms into Scythia thanks to which women were now allowed to become warriors.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=141-142}}

The Scythian sage [[Anacharsis]], the brother of the then reigning king Sauaios, lived in the 6th century BC.{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=54}} Anacharsis left Scythia to travel to Greece, where he became respected enough as a skilled philosopher that he was granted Athenian citizenship.{{sfn|Zaikov|2004|p=69}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=55}} Although much regarding the historicity of Anacharsis is uncertain, he later became popular in ancient Greek literature, in which he appeared as a sort of "man of Nature" and "noble savage" incarnating "Barbarian wisdom," after which he especially a favourite figure of the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=55}}

====The Persian invasion====
{{main|Scythian campaign of Darius I}}
[[File:DariusScythes fr.svg|thumb|Map of the [[Scythian campaign of Darius I]].]]
[[File:Achaemenid soldiers against Scythians.jpg|thumb|Persian soldiers (left) fighting against Scythians. [[Cylinder seal]] impression.{{sfn|Hartley|Yazicioğlu|Smith|2012|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UstGrkGNNQcC&pg=PA83 83]}}]]
In the late 6th century BC, the Achaemenid Persian Empire started expanding into Europe, beginning with the Persian annexation of all of Thrace,{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=42}} after which the Achaemenid king of kings [[Darius the Great|Darius I]] crossed the Istros river in 513 BC<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Grousset|1970|p=9}}|{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1985|p=190}}|{{harvnb|Batty|2007|p=208}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=42}}}}</ref> and attacked the Scythian kingdom with an army of 700,000 to 800,000 soldiers,<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1990|p=101}}|{{harvnb|Melyukova|1995|p=29}}|{{harvnb|Harmatta|1996|p=181}}|{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2000b|p=132}}|{{harvnb|Parzinger|2004|p=22}}|{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}|{{harvnb|Cunliffe|2019|p=42}}}}</ref> possibly with the goal of annexing it.{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=42}}

The results of this campaign are unclear, with Darius I himself claiming that he had conquered the {{translit|peo|Sakā tayaiy paradraya}} ({{lit|the Saka who dwell beyond the (Black) Sea}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2019|p=42}}), that is the Pontic Scythians,{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} while the ancient Greek literary tradition, following the account of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, claimed that the Persian campaign had been defeated by the Scythians, due to which the Greeks started perceiving the Scythians as being invincible thanks to their nomadic lifestyle:{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=100}}{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=101}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|2018}} Herodotus's narrative is itself considered dubious by modern historians,{{sfn|Melyukova|1990|p=100}} and his account of the failure of Darius appears to have been extremely exaggerated.{{sfn|Fol|Hammond|1988|p=234}} Some form of Achaemenid authority might have been established in Pontic Scythia as a result of this campaign without it having been annexed.{{sfn|Young|1988b|p=67}}