Editing Roman Republic (section)

====First Punic War (264–241 BC)====
{{main|First Punic War}}
[[File:Roman Republic before the First Punic War.png|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The Roman Republic before the First Punic War]]
{{Campaignbox First Punic War}}
[[File:Dinastie della grecia occidentale, hieron II, 32 litri di siracusa, 274-216 ac ca.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|Coin of [[Hiero II of Syracuse]]]]

Rome and [[Carthage]] were initially on friendly terms, lastly in an alliance against Pyrrhus,{{Sfn|Polyb.|loc=iii.22–26}}{{sfn|Livy|loc=vii.27}}{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|pp=517–537}} but tensions rapidly rose after the departure of the Epirote king. Between 288 and 283&nbsp;BC, [[Messina]] in Sicily was taken by the [[Mamertines]], a band of mercenaries formerly employed by [[Agathocles of Syracuse|Agathocles]]. They plundered the surroundings until [[Hiero II]], the new tyrant of [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], defeated them (in either 269 or 265&nbsp;BC). In effect under a Carthaginian protectorate, the remaining Mamertines appealed to Rome to regain their independence. Senators were divided on whether to help. A supporter of war, the consul [[Appius Claudius Caudex]], turned to one of the popular assemblies to get a favourable vote by promising plunder to the voters.{{efn|The specific assembly consulted has led to many discussions in the academic literature. {{harvnb|Goldsworthy|2001|p=69}} favours the [[Centuriate Assembly]]. {{harvnb|Scullard|1989a|p=542}} similarly prefers the ''centuria'' over the tribes. It is unclear whether the Romans formally declared war; they may have justified the conflict in terms of fulfilling the newly-ratified Mamertine alliance.}} After the assembly ratified an alliance with the Mamertines, Caudex was dispatched to cross the strait and lend aid.{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|p=542}}

[[File:Corvus.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Diagram of a ''corvus'']]
Messina fell under Roman control quickly.{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|p=543}} Syracuse and Carthage, at war for centuries, responded with an alliance to counter the invasion and blockaded Messina, but Caudex defeated Hiero and Carthage separately.{{sfn|Polyb.|loc=1.11–12}}{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|p=545|ps=, however, claims that Caudex failed to break the blockade; he did not receive a triumph and was succeeded in command by [[Manius Valerius Maximus Messalla|Manius Valerius Maximus]], who triumphed instead and gained the cognomen "Messalla".}} His successor, [[Manius Valerius Maximus Messalla|Manius Valerius Maximus]], landed with an army of 40,000 men and conquered eastern Sicily, which prompted Hiero to shift his allegiance and forge a long-lasting alliance with Rome. In 262&nbsp;BC, the Romans moved to the southern coast and besieged [[Akragas]]. In order to raise the siege, Carthage sent reinforcements, including 60 elephants—the first time they used them—but still lost the [[Battle of Agrigentum|battle]].{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|p=547}} Nevertheless, Rome could not take all of Sicily because Carthage's naval superiority prevented it from effectively besieging coastal cities. Using a captured Carthaginian ship as blueprint, Rome therefore launched a massive construction programme and built 100 [[quinquereme]]s in only two months. It also invented a new device, the ''[[Corvus (boarding device)|corvus]]'', a grappling engine that enabled a crew to board an enemy ship.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2001|p=113}} The consul for 260&nbsp;BC, [[Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina]], lost the first [[Battle of the Lipari Islands|naval skirmish]] of the war against [[Hannibal Gisco]] at [[Lipara]], but his colleague [[Gaius Duilius]] won a [[Battle of Mylae|great victory]] at [[Mylae]]. He destroyed or captured 44 ships and was the first Roman to receive a naval triumph, which also included captive Carthaginians for the first time.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2001|p=84}} Although Carthage was victorious on land at [[Battle of Thermae|Thermae]] in Sicily, the ''corvus'' gave a strong advantage to Rome on the waters. The consul [[Lucius Cornelius Scipio (consul 259 BC)|Lucius Cornelius Scipio]] (Asina's brother) captured [[Corsica]] in 259&nbsp;BC; his successors won the naval battles of [[Battle of Sulci|Sulci]] in 258, [[Battle of Tyndaris|Tyndaris]] in 257&nbsp;BC, and [[Battle of Cape Ecnomus|Cape Ecnomus]] in 256.{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|pp=548–554}}
[[File:San Nicola Giano.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Temple of Janus (Forum Holitorium)|Temple of Janus]] as seen in the present church of [[San Nicola in Carcere]], in the ''[[Forum Holitorium]]'' of Rome, Italy, dedicated by [[Gaius Duilius]] after his naval victory at the [[Battle of Mylae]] in 260&nbsp;BC<ref>[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annales]]''. II.49.</ref>]]

To hasten the end of the war, the consuls for 256&nbsp;BC decided to carry the operations to Africa, on Carthage's homeland. The consul [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]] landed on the [[Cap Bon]] peninsula with about 18,000 soldiers. He captured the city of [[Siege of Aspis|Aspis]], repulsed Carthage's counterattack at [[Adys]], and took [[Tunis]]. The Carthaginians hired Spartan mercenaries, led by [[Xanthippus of Carthage|Xanthippus]], to command their troops.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2001|p=88}} In 255, the Spartan general marched on Regulus, [[Battle of the Bagradas River (255 BC)|crushing the Roman infantry on the Bagradas plain]]; only 2,000 soldiers escaped, and Regulus was captured. The consuls for 255 nonetheless won a naval victory at Cape Hermaeum, where they captured 114 warships. This success was spoilt by a storm that annihilated the victorious navy: 184 ships of 264 sank, 25,000 soldiers and 75,000 rowers drowned. The ''corvus'' considerably hindered ships' navigation and made them vulnerable during tempest. It was abandoned after another similar catastrophe in 253&nbsp;BC. These disasters prevented any significant campaign between 254 and 252&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|pp=554–557}}

[[File:C._Caecilius_Metellus_Caprarius,_denarius,_125_BC,_RRC_269-1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Denarius of [[Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius]], 125&nbsp;BC. The reverse depicts the triumph of his great-grandfather [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (consul 251 BC)|Lucius]], with the elephants he had captured at [[Battle of Panormus|Panormos]]. The elephant had thence become the emblem of the powerful [[Caecilii]] Metelli.{{Sfn|Crawford|1974|pp=292–293}}]]
Hostilities in Sicily resumed in 252 &nbsp;BC, with Rome's taking of Thermae. The next year, Carthage besieged [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (consul 251 BC)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]], who held [[Palermo|Panormos]] (now Palermo). The consul had dug trenches to counter the elephants, which once hurt by missiles turned back on their own army, resulting in a [[Battle of Panormus|great victory]] for Metellus. Rome then besieged the last Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily, [[Lilybaeum]] and [[Drepana]], but these cities were impregnable by land. [[Publius Claudius Pulcher (consul 249 BC)|Publius Claudius Pulcher]], the consul of 249, recklessly tried to take the latter from the sea, but suffered a terrible [[Battle of Drepana|defeat]]; his colleague [[Lucius Junius Pullus]] likewise lost his fleet off [[Siege of Lilybaeum (250 BC)|Lilybaeum]]. Without the ''corvus'', Roman warships had lost their advantage. By now, both sides were drained and could not undertake large-scale operations. The only military activity during this period was the landing in Sicily of [[Hamilcar Barca]] in 247&nbsp;BC, who harassed the Romans with a mercenary army from a citadel he built on [[Monte Erice|Mt. Eryx]].{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|pp=559–564}}

Unable to take the Punic fortresses in Sicily, Rome tried to decide the war at sea and built a new navy, thanks to a forced borrowing from the rich. In 242&nbsp;BC, 200 quinqueremes under consul [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]] blockaded Drepana. The rescue fleet from Carthage was [[Battle of the Aegates|soundly defeated]] by Catulus. Exhausted and unable to bring supplies to Sicily, Carthage sued for peace. Carthage had to pay 1,000 [[Talents of silver|talents]] immediately and 2,200 over ten years and evacuate Sicily. The fine was so high that Carthage could not pay Hamilcar's mercenaries, who had been shipped back to Africa. They revolted during the [[Mercenary War]], which Carthage suppressed with enormous difficulty. Meanwhile, Rome took advantage of a similar revolt in [[Sardinia]] to seize the island from Carthage, in violation of the peace treaty. This led to permanent bitterness in Carthage.{{sfn|Scullard|1989a|pp=565–569}}