Editing Richard I of England (section)

==Life after the Third Crusade==
===Captivity, ransom and return===
[[File:Heinrich VI. begnadigt Richard Loewenherz.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Depiction of Richard being pardoned by Emperor Henry VI in [[Peter of Eboli]]'s ''[[Liber ad honorem Augusti]]'', {{Circa|1196}}]]
Bad weather forced Richard's ship to put in at [[Corfu]], in the lands of Byzantine Emperor [[Isaac II Angelos]], who objected to Richard's annexation of Cyprus, formerly Byzantine territory. Disguised as a Knight Templar, Richard sailed from Corfu with four attendants, but his ship was wrecked near [[Aquileia]], forcing Richard and his party into taking a dangerous land route through central Europe. On his way to the territory of his brother-in-law [[Henry the Lion]], Richard was captured shortly before Christmas 1192 near [[Vienna]] by Leopold of Austria, who accused Richard of arranging the murder of his cousin Conrad of Montferrat. Moreover, Richard had personally offended Leopold by casting down his standard from the walls of Acre.<ref name=":0" />

Leopold kept Richard prisoner at [[Dürnstein Castle]] under the care of Leopold's {{Lang|la|[[ministerialis]]}} Hadmar of Kuenring.<ref>{{Harvnb|Arnold|1999|p=128}}</ref> This mishap was soon known in England, but the regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts. While in prison, Richard wrote the musical piece ''{{Lang|fro|Ja nus hons pris}}'' or ''{{Lang|pro|Ja nuls om pres}}'' ("No man who is imprisoned"), which is addressed to his half-sister Marie. He wrote the song, in French and Occitan versions, to express his feelings of abandonment by his people and his sister. The detention of a crusader was contrary to public law,<ref name="eb1911">{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Richard I. |volume=23 |page=295 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=188–189}} and on these grounds [[Pope Celestine III]] excommunicated Leopold.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mann |first1=Horace Kinder |title=The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages |date=1914 |publisher=K. Paul, Trench, Trübner |page=417 |isbn=978-0-7222-2160-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVFWvsGBDKgC&pg=PA417 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Durnstein castle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Ruins of [[Dürnstein Castle]], where Richard was at first kept captive]]

On 28 March 1193, Richard was brought to [[Speyer]] and handed over to Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, who imprisoned him in [[Trifels Castle]]. The Emperor was aggrieved by the support the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion and by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily.<ref name="eb1911"/> Henry VI needed money to raise an army and assert his rights over southern Italy and continued to hold Richard for ransom. Nevertheless, to Richard's irritation, Pope Celestine hesitated to excommunicate Henry VI, as he had Duke Leopold, for the continued wrongful imprisonment of Richard. He famously refused to show deference to the Emperor and declared to him, "[[s:I am born in a rank which recognizes no superior but God|I am born of a rank which recognises no superior but God]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Longford|1989|p=85.}}</ref> The King was at first shown a certain measure of respect, but later, at the prompting of [[Philip of Dreux]], Bishop of Beauvais and Philip of France's cousin, the conditions of Richard's captivity worsened, and he was kept in chains, "so heavy," Richard declared, "that a horse or ass would have struggled to move under them."<ref>William of Newburgh, ''Historia'', ii. 493–494, cited in John Gillingham, "The Kidnapped King: Richard I in Germany, 1192–1194," ''German Historical Institute London Bulletin'', 2008. Richard would have his revenge on Dreux when the Bishop was captured, clad in a mailcoat and fully armed, by Richard's men in 1197; the king promptly clapped him into prison, from whence he was released only in 1200, a year after Richard's death.</ref>

The Emperor demanded that {{Formatnum:150000}} marks (100,000 pounds of silver) be delivered to him before he would release the King, the same amount raised by the Saladin tithe only a few years earlier,<ref name="silver">{{Harvnb|Madden|2005|p=96}}</ref> and two to three times the annual income of the English Crown under Richard. Meanwhile, Eleanor worked tirelessly to raise the ransom for her son's release. Leopold also requested [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany]], niece of Richard, marry his heir [[Frederick I, Duke of Austria (Babenberg)|Frederick]]. Both clergy and laymen were taxed for a quarter of the value of their property, the gold and silver treasures of the churches were confiscated, and money was raised from the [[scutage]] and the [[carucage]] taxes. At the same time, Richard's brother John and King Philip of France offered {{Formatnum:80000}} marks for Henry VI to hold Richard prisoner until [[Michaelmas]] 1194. Henry turned down the offer. The money to release the King was transferred to Germany by the Emperor's ambassadors, but "at the king's peril" (had it been lost along the way, Richard would have been held responsible), and finally, on 4 February 1194, Richard was released. Philip sent a message to John: "Look to yourself; the devil is loose".{{Sfn|Purser|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fBs0VlTA-qEC&pg=PA161 161]}} Furthermore, upon the sudden death of Leopold, under the pressure of the Pope, the new duke Frederick was forced to abandon his marriage plan with Eleanor of Brittany.<ref name=mcpe>Costain, Thomas B. ''The Magnificent Century: The Pageant of England''. Garden City: Doubleday, 1951, pp. 4–7</ref><ref>''The Angevin Empire''</ref>

===War against Philip of France===
In Richard's absence, his brother John revolted with the aid of Philip; amongst Philip's conquests in the period of Richard's imprisonment was a part of Normandy<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2004}}.</ref> called [[Norman Vexin]] facing [[French Vexin]]. Richard forgave John when they met again and named him as his heir in place of their nephew Arthur. At Winchester, on 11 March 1194, Richard was crowned a second time to nullify the shame of his captivity.{{Sfn|Barrow|1967|p=184}}

Richard began his reconquest of the lost lands in Normandy. The fall of the [[Château de Gisors]] to the French in 1193 opened a gap in the Norman defences. The search began for a fresh site for a new castle to defend the duchy of Normandy and act as a base from which Richard could launch his campaign to take back Vexin from French control.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=303–305.}}</ref> A naturally defensible position was identified, perched high above the River [[Seine]], an important transport route, in the manor of [[Les Andelys|Andeli]]. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Louviers]] (December 1195) between Richard and Philip II, neither king was allowed to fortify the site; despite this, Richard intended to build the vast [[Château Gaillard]].<ref name="Gillingham 301">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=301.}}</ref> Richard tried to obtain the manor through negotiation. [[Walter de Coutances]], [[Archbishop of Rouen]], was reluctant to sell the manor, as it was one of the diocese's most profitable, and other lands belonging to the diocese had recently been damaged by war.<ref name="Gillingham 301"/> When Philip besieged Aumale in Normandy, Richard grew tired of waiting and seized the manor,<ref name="Gillingham 301"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Turner|1997|p=10.}}</ref> although the act was opposed by the Catholic Church.<ref>{{Harvnb|Packard|1922|p=20.}}</ref> The archbishop issued an [[interdict]] against performing church services in the duchy of Normandy; Roger of Howden detailed "unburied bodies of the dead lying in the streets and square of the cities of Normandy". The interdict was still in force when work began on the castle, but Pope Celestine III repealed it in April 1197 after Richard made gifts of land to the archbishop and the diocese of Rouen, including two manors and the prosperous port of [[Dieppe]].<ref name="Gillingham 302">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|pp=302–304}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|2004|p=112.}}</ref>

[[File:Chateau gaillard (France, Normandy).JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|The ruins of [[Château Gaillard]] in Normandy]]

Royal expenditure on castles declined from the levels spent under Henry II, attributed to a concentration of resources on Richard's war with the king of France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1976|pp=355–356.}}</ref> However, the work at Château Gaillard was some of the most expensive of its time and cost an estimated £15,000 to £20,000 between 1196 and 1198.<ref name="McNeil 42">{{Harvnb|McNeill|1992|p=42.}}</ref> This was more than double Richard's spending on castles in England, an estimated £7,000.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=304.}}</ref> Unprecedented in its speed of construction, the castle was mostly complete in two years, when most construction on such a scale would have taken the better part of a decade.<ref name="McNeil 42"/> According to [[William of Newburgh]], in May 1198 Richard and the labourers working on the castle were drenched in a "rain of blood". While some of his advisers thought the rain was an evil omen, Richard was undeterred.<ref name="Gillingham 2002 303">{{Harvnb|Gillingham|2002|p=303.}}</ref>
As no master-mason is mentioned in the otherwise detailed records of the castle's construction, military historian Richard Allen Brown has suggested that Richard himself was the overall architect; this is supported by the interest Richard showed in the work through his frequent presence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|2004|p=113.}}</ref> In his final years, the castle became Richard's favourite residence, and writs and charters were written at Château Gaillard bearing "''{{Lang|la|apud Bellum Castrum de Rupe}}''" (at the Fair Castle of the Rock).<ref name="Allen Brown 62">{{Harvnb|Brown|1976|p=62.}}</ref>

Château Gaillard was ahead of its time, featuring innovations that would be adopted in castle architecture nearly a century later. Allen Brown described Château Gaillard as "one of the finest castles in Europe",<ref name="Allen Brown 62"/> and military historian Sir [[Charles Oman]] wrote that it was considered "the masterpiece of its time. The reputation of its builder, Cœur de Lion, as a great military engineer might stand firm on this single structure. He was no mere copyist of the models he had seen in the East, but introduced many original details of his own invention into the stronghold".<ref>{{Harvnb|Oman|1991|p=33.}}</ref>

Determined to resist Philip's designs on contested Angevin lands such as the Vexin and Berry, Richard poured all his military expertise and vast resources into the war on the French King. He organised an alliance against Philip, including [[Baldwin IX of Flanders]], [[Renaud I, Count of Dammartin|Renaud]], Count of [[Boulogne]], and his father-in-law, King Sancho VI of Navarre, who raided Philip's lands from the south. Most importantly, he managed to secure the [[House of Welf|Welf]] inheritance in [[Saxony]] for his nephew, Henry the Lion's son, who was elected [[Otto IV of Germany]] in 1198.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

Partly as a result of these and other intrigues, Richard won several victories over Philip. At [[Fréteval]] in 1194, just after Richard's return to France from captivity and money-raising in England, Philip fled, leaving his entire archive of financial audits and documents to be captured by Richard. At the [[Battle of Gisors]] (sometimes called Courcelles) in 1198, Richard took ''{{Lang|fr|Dieu et mon Droit}}''{{Snd}}"God and my Right"{{Snd}}as his motto (still used by the [[British monarchy]] today), echoing his earlier boast to Emperor Henry that his rank acknowledged no superior but God.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

===Death===
[[File:Lvisrdce.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Inverted coat of arms of Richard, indicating his death, from a manuscript of ''{{Lang|la|[[Chronica Majora]]}}'' by [[Matthew Paris]] (13th century)<ref name=lewis/>]]
In March 1199, Richard was in [[Limousin]] suppressing a revolt by Viscount [[Aimar V of Limoges]]. Although it was [[Lent]], he "devastated the Viscount's land with fire and sword".{{Sfn|Ralph_of_Coggeshall|p=94}} He besieged the tiny, virtually unarmed castle of [[Château de Châlus-Chabrol|Châlus-Chabrol]]. Some chroniclers claimed that this was because a local peasant had uncovered a [[treasure trove]] of Roman gold.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historynet.com/magazines/military_history/3717336.html?page=4&c=y |title=King Richard I of England Versus King Philip II Augustus |publisher=Historynet.com |date=23 August 2006 |access-date=4 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312101537/http://www.historynet.com/magazines/military_history/3717336.html?page=4&c=y |archive-date=12 March 2008 }}</ref>

On 26 March 1199, Richard was hit in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt, and the wound turned [[gangrenous]].{{Sfn|Gillingham|2004}} Richard asked to have the crossbowman brought before him; called alternatively [[Pierre Basile|Pierre (or Peter) Basile]], John Sabroz, Dudo,{{Sfn|Gillingham|1989|p=16}}{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|pp=233–254}} and Bertrand de Gourdon (from the town of [[Gourdon, Lot|Gourdon]]) by chroniclers, the man turned out (according to some sources, but not all) to be a boy. He said Richard had killed his father and two brothers, and that he had intended to kill Richard in revenge. He expected to be executed, but as a final act of mercy Richard forgave him, saying "Live on, and by my bounty behold the light of day", before he ordered the boy to be freed and sent away with 100 [[shilling]]s.{{Efn|Although there are numerous variations of the story's details, it is not disputed that Richard did pardon the person who shot the bolt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flori|1999f|p=234}}</ref>}}

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| caption1      = Tomb containing the heart of King Richard in [[Rouen Cathedral]]
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| caption2      = Richard’s Tomb at Fontevraud
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Richard died on 6 April 1199 in the arms of his mother, and thus "ended his earthly day."<ref>{{Cite book|first=Alison|last=Weir|author-link=Alison Weir|title=Eleanor of Aquitaine: By the Wrath of God, Queen of England|publisher=[[Random House]]|location=New York City|date=2011|asin=B004OEIDOS|page=319}}</ref> Because of the nature of his death, it was later said that "the Lion by the Ant was slain".<ref>{{Cite book|first=Marion|last=Meade|title=Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Biography|date=1977|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|location=New York |asin=B00328ZUOS|page=329}}</ref> According to one chronicler, Richard's last act of chivalry proved fruitless when the infamous [[mercenary]] captain [[Mercadier]] had the boy [[flayed alive]] and [[hanged]] as soon as Richard died.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=238}}

Richard's heart was buried at Rouen in Normandy, his entrails in [[Châlus]] (where he died), and the rest of his body at the feet of his father at [[Fontevraud Abbey]] in Anjou.{{Sfn|Flori|1999f|p=235}} In 2012, scientists analysed the remains of Richard's heart and found that it had been [[embalmed]] with various substances, including [[frankincense]], a symbolically important substance because it had been present both at the birth and embalming of Christ.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Charlier|first=Philippe|others=Joël Poupon, Gaël-François Jeannel, Dominique Favier, Speranta-Maria Popescu, Raphaël Weil, Christophe Moulherat, Isabelle Huynh-Charlier, Caroline Dorion-Peyronnet, Ana-Maria Lazar, Christian Hervé & Geoffroy Lorin de la Grandmaison|title=The embalmed heart of Richard the Lionheart (1199 A.D.): a biological and anthropological analysis|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|publisher=[[Nature Research]]|location=London, England|date=28 February 2013 |doi=10.1038/srep01296|volume=3|issue=1 |pages=1296|pmid=23448897|pmc=3584573|bibcode=2013NatSR...3.1296C|issn = 2045-2322}}</ref>

[[Henry Sandford (bishop)|Henry Sandford]], [[Bishop of Rochester]] (1226–1235), announced that he had seen a vision of Richard ascending to [[Heaven]] in March 1232 (along with [[Stephen Langton]], the former archbishop of Canterbury), the King having presumably spent 33 years in [[purgatory]] as [[expiation]] for his sins.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillingham|1979|p=8.}} Roger of Wendover (''{{Lang|la|Flores historiarum}}'', p. 234) ascribes Sandford's vision to the day before Palm Sunday, 3 April 1232.</ref>

Richard produced no legitimate heirs and acknowledged only one illegitimate son, [[Philip of Cognac]]. He was succeeded by his brother John as king.<ref name="Angevin"/> His French territories, with the exception of Rouen, initially rejected John as a successor, preferring his nephew Arthur.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jones|2014|pp=150–152}}</ref> The lack of any direct heirs from Richard was the first step in the dissolution of the [[Angevin Empire]].<ref name="Angevin">{{Cite book|first1=Peter|last1=Saccio|first2=Leon D.|last2=Black|year=2000|title=Shakespeare's English Kings: History, Chronicle, and Drama|chapter=John, The Legitimacy of the King; The Angevin Empire|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-512319-0|pages=190–195|edition=2nd}}</ref>