Editing Rhenium (section)

==Applications==
[[Image:Pratt & Whitney F100 F-15 engine undergoing testing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pratt & Whitney F100|The Pratt & Whitney F-100 engine]] uses rhenium-containing second-generation superalloys]]
Rhenium is added to high-temperature superalloys that are used to make [[jet engine]] parts,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhenium (Re) {{!}} AMERICAN ELEMENTS ® |url=https://www.americanelements.com/re.html |access-date=2024-05-14 |website=American Elements: The Materials Science Company |language=en}}</ref> using 70% of the worldwide rhenium production.<ref name="Naumov">{{cite journal|title=Rhythms of rhenium|journal=Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals|volume=48|issue=6|date=2007|doi=10.3103/S1067821207060089|pages=418–423|first=A. V.|last=Naumov|s2cid=137550564}}</ref> Another major application is in platinum–rhenium [[catalyst]]s, which are primarily used in making [[lead]]-free, high-octane [[gasoline]].<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook">{{cite web|title=2009 Mineral Yearbook: Rhenium|date=April 2011|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/myb1-2009-rheni.pdf| first=Michael J.|last=Magyar|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref>

===Alloys===
The nickel-based [[superalloy]]s have improved [[Creep (deformation)|creep strength]] with the addition of rhenium. The alloys normally contain 3% or 6% of rhenium.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nickel Based Superalloys|first=H. K. D. H.|last=Bhadeshia|url=http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html|publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=2008-10-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825053006/http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html|archive-date=2006-08-25}}</ref> Second-generation alloys contain 3%; these alloys were used in the engines for the [[Pratt & Whitney F100|F-15 and F-16]], whereas the newer single-crystal third-generation alloys contain 6% of rhenium; they are used in the [[Pratt & Whitney F119|F-22]] and [[Pratt & Whitney F135|F-35]] engines.<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Aerospace Materials: An Oxford-Kobe Materials Text|first=B.|last=Cantor|author2=Grant, Patrick Assender Hazel |publisher=CRC Press| date=2001|isbn=978-0-7503-0742-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n09-HajhRHYC |pages=82–83}}</ref> Rhenium is also used in the superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd gen) and CMSX-10 (3rd gen) that are used in industrial [[gas turbine]] engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium can cause [[superalloy]]s to become microstructurally unstable, forming undesirable topologically close packed (TCP) [[phase (matter)|phases]]. In 4th- and 5th-generation [[superalloy]]s, [[ruthenium]] is used to avoid this effect. Among others the new [[superalloy]]s are EPM-102 (with 3% Ru) and TMS-162 (with 6% Ru),<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s11041-006-0099-6|title = Effect of high-gradient directed crystallization on the structure and properties of rhenium-bearing single-crystal alloy|date = 2006|author = Bondarenko, Yu. A.|journal = Metal Science and Heat Treatment|volume = 48|page = 360|last2 = Kablov|first2 = E. N.|last3 = Surova|first3 = V. A.|last4 = Echin|first4 = A. B.|issue = 7–8|bibcode = 2006MSHT...48..360B|s2cid = 136907279}}</ref> as well as TMS-138<ref>{{cite news| title=Fourth generation nickel base single crystal superalloy|url=http://sakimori.nims.go.jp/catalog/TMS-138-A.pdf}}</ref> and TMS-174.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Koizumi, Yutaka|display-authors=etal|title= Development of a Next-Generation Ni-base Single Crystal Superalloy|url=http://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2003/00916/pdf/igtc2003tokyo_ts119.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the International Gas Turbine Congress, Tokyo November 2–7, 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Joint Development of a Fourth Generation Single Crystal Superalloy|author=Walston, S.|author2=Cetel, A.|author3=MacKay, R.|author4=O'Hara, K.|author5=Duhl, D.|author6=Dreshfield, R.|url=http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2004/TM-2004-213062.pdf| url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015113650/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2004/TM-2004-213062.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-15}}</ref>

[[File:CFM56 P1220759.jpg|thumb|left|CFM International CFM56 jet engine with blades made with 3% rhenium]]

For 2006, the consumption is given as 28% for [[General Electric]], 28% [[Rolls-Royce plc]] and 12% [[Pratt & Whitney]], all for superalloys, whereas the use for catalysts only accounts for 14% and the remaining applications use 18%.<ref name="Naumov" /> In 2006, 77% of rhenium consumption in the United States was in alloys.<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook" /> The rising demand for military jet engines and the constant supply made it necessary to develop superalloys with a lower rhenium content. For example, the newer [[CFM International CFM56]] high-pressure turbine (HPT) blades will use Rene N515 with a rhenium content of 1.5% instead of Rene N5 with 3%.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fink | first1 = Paul J. | last2 = Miller | first2 = Joshua L. | last3 = Konitzer | first3 = Douglas G. | title = Rhenium reduction—alloy design using an economically strategic element | journal = JOM | volume = 62 | issue = 1 | page = 55 | date = 2010 | doi = 10.1007/s11837-010-0012-z|bibcode = 2010JOM....62a..55F | s2cid = 137007996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| first =Douglas G. | last =Konitzer | url = http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2010/September/Design_Era_Constrained.cfm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725021809/http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2010/September/Design_Era_Constrained.cfm | archive-date = 2011-07-25 | title = Design in an Era of Constrained Resources | access-date = 2010-10-12| date = September 2010}}</ref>

Rhenium improves the properties of [[tungsten]]. Tungsten-rhenium alloys are more ductile at low temperature, allowing them to be more easily machined. The high-temperature stability is also improved. The effect increases with the rhenium concentration, and therefore tungsten alloys are produced with up to 27% of Re, which is the solubility limit.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tungsten: properties, chemistry, technology of the element, alloys, and chemical compounds|first=Erik|last=Lassner|author2=Schubert, Wolf-Dieter | publisher=Springer|date=1999|isbn=978-0-306-45053-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foLRISkt9gcC&pg=PA256|page=256}}</ref> Tungsten-rhenium wire was originally created in efforts to develop a wire that was more ductile after recrystallization. This allows the wire to meet specific performance objectives, including superior vibration resistance, improved ductility, and higher resistivity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ucfilament.com/materials/tungsten-rhenium/|title=Tungsten-Rhenium - Union City Filament|work=Union City Filament|access-date=2017-04-05|language=en-US}}</ref> One application for the tungsten-rhenium alloys is [[X-ray]] sources. The high melting point of both elements, together with their high atomic mass, makes them stable against the prolonged electron impact.<ref>{{cite book|title =Practical radiotherapy physics and equipment|first=Pam|last=Cherry|author2=Duxbury, Angela |publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998|isbn=978-1-900151-06-1|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=5WIBbmmDm-gC&pg=PA55|page=55}}</ref> Rhenium tungsten alloys are also applied as [[thermocouple]]s to measure temperatures up to 2200 °[[Celsius|C]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Tungsten-Rhenium Thermocouples for Use at High Temperatures|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=39|page=1233|date=1968|doi=10.1063/1.1683642|first= R.|last=Asamoto|author2=Novak, P. E. |issue=8|bibcode = 1968RScI...39.1233A }}</ref>

The high temperature stability, low vapor pressure, good [[Wear|wear resistance]] and ability to withstand arc corrosion of rhenium are useful in self-cleaning [[Switch#Contacts|electrical contacts]]. In particular, the discharge that occurs during electrical switching oxidizes the contacts. However, rhenium oxide Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> is volatile (sublimes at ~360&nbsp;°C) and therefore is removed during the discharge.<ref name="Naumov" />

Rhenium has a high melting point and a low vapor pressure similar to [[tantalum]] and tungsten. Therefore, rhenium filaments exhibit a higher stability if the filament is operated not in vacuum, but in oxygen-containing atmosphere.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/j100873a513|date=1966|last=Blackburn|first=Paul E.|journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry|volume=70|pages=311–312|title=The Vapor Pressure of Rhenium}}</ref> Those filaments are widely used in [[mass spectrometer]]s, [[ion gauge]]s<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tungsten-Rhenium Filament Lifetime Variability in Low Pressure Oxygen Environments|last= Earle|first=G. D.|author2=Medikonduri, R. |author3=Rajagopal, N. |author4=Narayanan, V. |author5= Roddy, P. A. |journal= IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science|volume=33|issue=5|pages=1736–1737|doi =10.1109/TPS.2005.856413|date=2005|bibcode = 2005ITPS...33.1736E |s2cid= 26162679}}</ref> and [[photoflash]] lamps in [[photography]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The chemical element: a historical perspective|first=Andrew|last=Ede| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|date=2006|isbn=978-0-313-33304-0}}</ref>

===Catalysts===
Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for [[catalytic reforming]], which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery [[Petroleum naphtha|naphthas]] with low [[octane rating]]s into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Rhenium-containing catalysts in reactions of organic compounds|date=1998|journal=Russian Chemical Reviews|volume=67|pages=157–177|doi=10.1070/RC1998v067n02ABEH000390|first=Margarita A.|last= Ryashentseva|issue=2|bibcode = 1998RuCRv..67..157R |s2cid=250866233 }}</ref> The [[olefin metathesis]] is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst. Normally Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> on [[alumina]] is used for this process.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Catalysis Today |volume=51| issue=2|date=1999|pages=289–299|title=Olefin metathesis over supported rhenium oxide catalysts|first=Johannes C.|last=Mol|doi=10.1016/S0920-5861(99)00051-6}}</ref> Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to [[catalyst poisoning|chemical poisoning]] from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.<ref name="CRC" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.|volume=38|issue=5|pages=1830–1836|date=1999|title=Selective Rhenium Recovery from Spent Reforming Catalysts|doi= 10.1021/ie9806242|first=T. N. |last=Angelidis|author2=Rosopoulou, D. Tzitzios V. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Oxidation State of Rhenium and Its Role in Platinum-Rhenium|url=http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/pmr-v22-i2-057-060.pdf | first=Robert|last=Burch|journal=Platinum Metals Review|date=1978|volume=22|issue=2|pages =57–60|doi=10.1595/003214078X2225760 }}</ref>

===Other uses===
The isotopes <sup>186</sup>Re and <sup>188</sup>Re are radioactive and are used for treatment of [[liver cancer]]. They both have similar [[penetration depth]] in tissue (5&nbsp;mm for <sup>186</sup>Re and 11&nbsp;mm for <sup>188</sup>Re), but <sup>186</sup>Re has the advantage of a longer half life (90 hours vs. 17 hours).<ref name="Dilw">{{cite journal| first=Jonathan R.|last=Dilworth|author2=Parrott, Suzanne J. |title=The biomedical chemistry of technetium and rhenium| journal=Chemical Society Reviews|date= 1998|volume=27|pages=43–55|doi=10.1039/a827043z}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]|title=The Tungsten-188 and Rhenium-188 Generator Information|date=2005|url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nuclear_science_technology/nu_med/188info.htm|access-date=2008-02-03 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080109170105/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nuclear_science_technology/nu_med/188info.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2008-01-09}}</ref>

<sup>188</sup>Re is also being used experimentally in a novel treatment of pancreatic cancer where it is delivered by means of the bacterium ''Listeria monocytogenes''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baker|first=Monya|title=Radioactive bacteria attack cancer|url=http://www.nature.com/news/radioactive-bacteria-attack-cancer-1.12841|journal=Nature|date=22 April 2013|doi=10.1038/nature.2013.12841|doi-access=free}}</ref> The <sup>188</sup>Re isotope is also used for the rhenium-SCT ([[skin cancer]] therapy). The treatment uses the isotope's properties as a [[Beta decay|beta emitter]] for [[brachytherapy]] in the treatment of [[Basal-cell carcinoma|basal cell carcinoma]] and [[Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck|squamous cell carcinoma]] of the skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cipriani|first1=Cesidio|last2=Desantis|first2=Maria|last3=Dahlhoff|first3=Gerhard|last4=Brown|first4=Shannon D.|last5=Wendler|first5=Thomas|last6=Olmeda|first6=Mar|last7=Pietsch|first7=Gunilla|last8=Eberlein|first8=Bernadette|date=2020-07-22|title=Personalized irradiation therapy for NMSC by rhenium-188 skin cancer therapy: a long-term retrospective study|journal=Journal of Dermatological Treatment|volume=33 |issue=2 |language=en|pages=969–975|doi=10.1080/09546634.2020.1793890|pmid=32648530|issn=0954-6634|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Related by [[periodic trends]], rhenium has a similar chemistry to that of [[technetium]]; work done to label rhenium onto target compounds can often be translated to technetium. This is useful for radiopharmacy, where it is difficult to work with technetium – especially the [[technetium-99m]] isotope used in medicine – due to its expense and short half-life.<ref name="Dilw" /><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1039/QR9621600299|title=An outline of technetium chemistry|date=1962|author=Colton, R.|author2=Peacock R. D. |journal=Quarterly Reviews, Chemical Society|volume=16|pages=299–315|issue=4}}</ref>

Rhenium is used in manufacturing high precision equipment like [[gyroscopes]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.samaterials.com/content/six-strategic-metals-widely-used-in-the-military-industry.html |title=Six Strategic Metals Widely Used in the Military Industry |last=Trento |first=Chin |website=Stanford Standard Materials |date=Apr 12, 2024 |access-date=June 24, 2024}}</ref> Its high [[density]], mechanical stability and [[corrosion]] resistance characteristics<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/rhenium |title=Rhenium |date=Mar 1, 2024 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=June 24, 2024}}</ref> ensure the equipment's [[durability]] and precise performance in demanding conditions. Rhenium cathodes are also used for their stability and precision in spectral analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Azarov |first1=V. |last2=Gayasov |first2=R. |date=2017 |title= Revised analysis of the fifth spectrum of rhenium (Re V) |url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/revised-analysis-fifth-spectrum-rhenium-re-v |journal=Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables |volume=119 |pages=175–192 |doi=10.1016/j.adt.2017.01.003 |access-date=June 24, 2024}}</ref>

Rhenium is used in aerospace, nuclear, and electronic industries, and it shows potential for application in medical instrumentation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/spinoff2001/ip11.html |title=Rhenium Redefined |year=2001 |website=NASA |access-date=Oct 28, 2024}}</ref> In the rocket industry, it is used in engine components for booster rockets.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.refractorymetal.org/rhenium/ |title=Applications of Rhenium |website=Advance Refractory Metals |access-date=Oct 28, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last=Harding |first=John |year=1988 |title=Iridium-Coated Rhenium Thrusters by CVD |publisher=NASA |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19880020490/downloads/19880020490.pdf |access-date=Oct 27, 2024 |page=2}}</ref> Additionally, rhenium was employed in the [[SP-100]] program due to its low-temperature ductility.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Hagel |first1=W.C. |last2=Shields |first2=J.A. |year=1984 |title=Processing and Production of Molybdenum and Tungsten Alloys |page=98 |publisher=US Department of Energy |url=https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/16/003/16003241.pdf |access-date=Oct 28, 2024}}</ref>

Rhenium's stiffness and high melting point makes it a common gasket material for [[high pressure experiments]] in [[Diamond anvil cell|diamond anvil cells]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diamond Anvil Cell |url=https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/mineralogy/mineral_physics/diamond_anvil.html |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=Mineral Physics |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Nanfei |last2=Chou |first2=I-Ming |last3=Wan |first3=Ye |last4=Wang |first4=Ruoheng |last5=Zhang |first5=Haiyan |last6=Chen |first6=Ying |date=2023-08-20 |title=The intrinsic effects of using rhenium gaskets in hydrothermal diamond anvil cell experiments on background fluorescence, contamination, and redox control |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0009254123002358 |journal=Chemical Geology |volume=632 |pages=121535 |doi=10.1016/j.chemgeo.2023.121535 |issn=0009-2541}}</ref>