Editing Rare-earth element (section)

==Production==
[[File:Rareearth production.svg|thumb|Global production 1950–2000|upright=1.5]]
Until 1948, most of the world's rare earths were sourced from [[placer deposit|placer]] sand deposits in [[India]] and [[Brazil]]. In the 1950s, South Africa was the world's rare earth source, from a monazite-rich reef at the [[Steenkampskraal mine]] in [[Western Cape]] province.<ref name=Rose60>{{cite web |last1=Rose |first1=Edward Roderick |title=Rare Earths of the Grenville Sub-Province, Ontario and Quebec |date=4 February 1960 |issue=Paper 59–10 |url=http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/101/101254/pa_59_10.pdf |access-date=18 May 2018 |publisher=Geological Survey of Canada |location=Ottawa}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> From the 1960s until the 1980s, the [[Mountain Pass rare earth mine]] in California made the United States the leading producer. Today, the Indian and South African deposits still produce some rare-earth concentrates, but they were dwarfed by the scale of Chinese production. In 2017, China produced 81% of the world's rare-earth supply, mostly in [[Inner Mongolia]],<ref name="Haxel02"/><ref name="Wikinvest">[https://www.wikinvest.com/China%27s_Rare_Earth_Dominance China's Rare Earth Dominance], Wikinvest. Retrieved on 11 Aug 2010.</ref> although it had only 36.7% of reserves. 

In 2018, Australia was the world's second largest producer, and the only other major producer, with 15% of world production.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gambogi |first1=Joseph |title=Mineral Commodity Summaries |date=January 2018 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |pages=132–133 |chapter-url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2018-raree.pdf |access-date=14 February 2018 |chapter=Rare Earths |archive-date=January 25, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125055346/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2018-raree.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> All of the world's heavy rare earths (such as dysprosium) come from Chinese rare-earth sources such as the [[polymetal]]lic [[Bayan Obo]] deposit.<ref name="Wikinvest"/><ref>Chao E. C. T., Back J. M., Minkin J., Tatsumoto M., Junwen W., Conrad J. E., McKee E. H., Zonglin H., Qingrun M. [http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b2143/ "Sedimentary carbonate‐hosted giant Bayan Obo REE‐Fe‐Nb ore deposit of Inner Mongolia, China; a cornerstone example for giant polymetallic ore deposits of hydrothermal origin"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120135314/http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/b2143/ |date=January 20, 2022}}. 1997. United States Geological Survey. 29 February 2008. Bulletin 2143.</ref> The Browns Range mine, located 160&nbsp;km south east of [[Halls Creek]] in northern [[Western Australia]], was under development   in 2018 and is positioned to become the first significant dysprosium producer outside of China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://northernminerals.com.au/browns-range/overview/ |title=Overview |publisher=Northern Minerals Limited |access-date=2018-04-21 |archive-date=August 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806170453/http://northernminerals.com.au/browns-range/overview/ }}</ref>

REE is increasing in demand due to the fact that they are essential for new and innovative technology that is being created. These new products that need REEs to be produced are high-technology equipment such as smart phones, digital cameras, computer parts, semiconductors, etc. In addition, these elements are more prevalent in the following industries: renewable energy technology, military equipment, glass making, and metallurgy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2014/3078/pdf/fs2014-3078.pdf |title=The Rare-Earth Elements—Vital to Modern Technologies and Lifestyles |date=November 2014 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |access-date=2018-03-13 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119103001/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2014/3078/pdf/fs2014-3078.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
Increased demand has strained supply, and there is growing concern that the world may soon face a shortage of the rare earths.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theanchorhouse.com/ |title=Cox C. 2008. Rare earth innovation. Herndon (VA): The Anchor House Inc; |access-date=2008-04-19 |archive-date=July 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708230509/https://www.theanchorhouse.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref> 

In 2009, future worldwide demand for rare-earth elements was expected to exceed supply by 40,000 metric tons annually unless major new sources are developed.<ref name=Reuters>[https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE57U02B20090831 "As hybrid cars gobble rare metals, shortage looms"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605204539/https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE57U02B20090831 |date=June 5, 2022}}. Reuters. August 31, 2009. Retrieved Aug 31, 2009.</ref> In 2013, it was stated that the demand for REEs would increase due to the dependence of the EU on these elements, the fact that rare-earth elements cannot be substituted by other elements and that REEs have a low recycling rate. Due to the increased demand and low supply, future prices are expected to increase and there is a chance that countries other than China will open REE mines.<ref name=Massari>{{cite journal |date=2013-03-01 |title=Rare earth elements as critical raw materials: Focus on international markets and future strategies |journal=Resources Policy |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=36–43 |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.07.001 |issn=0301-4207 |last1=Massari |first1=Stefania |last2=Ruberti |first2=Marcello|bibcode=2013RePol..38...36M }}</ref> In 2023, there were over a hundred ongoing mining projects, with many options outside of China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Shuang-Liang |last2=Fan |first2=Hong-Rui |last3=Liu |first3=Xuan |last4=Meng |first4=Jianyin |last5=Butcher |first5=Alan R. |last6=Yann |first6=Lahaye |last7=Yang |first7=Kui-Feng |last8=Li |first8=Xiao-Chun |date=2023-06-01 |title=Global rare earth elements projects: New developments and supply chains |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |volume=157 |pages=105428 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105428 |issn=0169-1368|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023OGRv..15705428L }}</ref>

===China===
{{See also|Rare earths trade dispute}}

These concerns have intensified due to the actions of China, the predominant supplier.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=Foreign Affairs |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2012-04-25/china-digs-it |title=China Digs It |first=Damien |last=Ma |date=25 April 2012 |access-date=10 February 2017 |archive-date=April 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410095515/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2012-04-25/china-digs-it |url-status=live}}</ref> Specifically, China has announced regulations on exports and a crackdown on smuggling.<ref name="Livergood2010">{{cite web |author=Livergood, R. |url=http://csis.org/files/publication/101005_DIIG_Current_Issues_no22_Rare_earth_elements.pdf |title=Rare Earth Elements: A Wrench in the Supply Chain |date=5 October 2010 |publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies |access-date=2012-03-13 |archive-date=February 12, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212024126/http://csis.org/files/publication/101005_DIIG_Current_Issues_no22_Rare_earth_elements.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> On September 1, 2009, China announced plans to reduce its export quota to 35,000 tons per year in 2010–2015 to conserve scarce resources and protect the environment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manufacturing.net/article.aspx?id=215574 |title=China To Limit Rare Earths Exports |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726201410/http://www.manufacturing.net/article.aspx?id=215574 |archive-date=2011-07-26 |website=Manufacturing.net, 1 September 2009. |access-date=2010-08-30}}</ref> On October 19, 2010, ''[[China Daily]]'', citing an unnamed Ministry of Commerce official, reported that China will "further reduce quotas for rare-earth exports by 30 percent at most next year to protect the precious metals from over-exploitation."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thehill.com/blogs/e2-wire/677-e2-wire/124853-china-to-cut-exports-of-rare-earth-minerals-vital-to-energy-tech |title=China to cut exports of 'rare earth' minerals vital to energy tech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021053554/http://thehill.com/blogs/e2-wire/677-e2-wire/124853-china-to-cut-exports-of-rare-earth-minerals-vital-to-energy-tech |archive-date=2010-10-21 |website=The Hill's E{{sup |2}} Wire |author=Ben Geman |date=19 Oct 2009 |access-date=2010-10-19}}</ref> 

The government in Beijing further increased its control by forcing smaller, independent miners to merge into state-owned corporations or face closure. At the end of 2010, China announced that the first round of export quotas in 2011 for rare earths would be 14,446 tons, which was a 35% decrease from the previous first round of quotas in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 18, 2011 |url=http://thechinaperspective.com/articles/china039srareearthexportssurgeinvalue8111/index.html |author=Tony Jin |title=China's Rare Earth Exports Surge in Value |website=The China Perspective |access-date=January 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110213042905/http://thechinaperspective.com/articles/china039srareearthexportssurgeinvalue8111/index.html |archive-date=2011-02-13}}</ref> China announced further export quotas on 14 July 2011 for the second half of the year with total allocation at 30,184 tons with total production capped at 93,800 metric tons.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Zhang Qi |author2=Ding Qingfen |author3=Fu Jing |title=Rare earths export quota unchanged |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2011-07/15/content_12910072.htm |work=China Daily |date=2011-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724114258/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2011-07/15/content_12910072.htm |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref> In September 2011, China announced the halt in production of three of its eight major rare-earth mines, responsible for almost 40% of China's total rare-earth production.<ref name=ReutersSept611/> 

In March 2012, the US, EU, and Japan confronted China at WTO about these export and production restrictions. China responded with claims that the restrictions had environmental protection in mind.<ref name=reuters>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-trade-eu-idUSL5E8ED6520120313 |title=WRAPUP 4-US, EU, Japan take on China at WTO over rare earths |date=13 March 2017 |access-date=10 February 2017 |website=Reuters |archive-date=June 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626172529/https://www.reuters.com/article/china-trade-eu-idUSL5E8ED6520120313 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Distillations"/> In August 2012, China announced a further 20% reduction in production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/08/business/china-rare-earth/index.html?section=money_news_international |author=Kevin Voigt |website=CNN |title=China cuts mines vital to tech industry |date=August 8, 2012 |access-date=August 8, 2012 |archive-date=May 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507144841/https://www.cnn.com/2012/08/08/business/china-rare-earth/index.html?section=money_news_international |url-status=live}}</ref>
The United States, Japan, and the European Union filed a joint lawsuit with the World Trade Organization in 2012 against China, arguing that China should not be able to deny such important exports.<ref name="Distillations"/>

In 2012, in response to the opening of new mines in other countries ([[Lynas]] in Australia and [[Molycorp]] in the United States), prices of rare earths dropped.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/12/23/rare_earth_non_monopoly/ |title=El Reg man: Too bad, China – I was RIGHT about hoarding rare earths |date=23 Dec 2012 |author=Tim Worstall |website=The Register |access-date=10 February 2017 |archive-date=February 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201021147/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/12/23/rare_earth_non_monopoly/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
The price of dysprosium oxide was US$994/kg in 2011, and dropped to US$265/kg by 2014.<ref name=WTI>{{cite web |title=China scraps quotas on rare earths after WTO complaint |website=The Guardian |date=Jan 5, 2015 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/05/china-scraps-quotas-rare-earth-wto-complaint |access-date=Jan 5, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615084158/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/05/china-scraps-quotas-rare-earth-wto-complaint |archive-date=June 15, 2022}}</ref>

In August 2014, the WTO ruled that China had broken free-trade agreements, and the WTO said in the summary of key findings that "the overall effect of the foreign and domestic restrictions is to encourage domestic extraction and secure preferential use of those materials by Chinese manufacturers." China declared that it would implement the ruling on September 26, 2014, but would need some time to do so. By January 5, 2015, China had lifted all quotas from the export of rare earths, but export licenses will still be required.<ref name=WTO>{{cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds431_e.htm |title=DS431: China — Measures Related to the Exportation of Rare Earths, Tungsten and Molybdenum |access-date=May 1, 2014 |publisher=[[World Trade Organization]] |archive-date=June 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630141201/https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds431_e.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2019, [[China]] supplied between 85% and 95% of the global demand for the 17 rare-earth powders, half of them sourced from [[Myanmar]].<ref>R. Castellano (Jun. 02, 2019). [https://seekingalpha.com/article/4267839-china-trade-invest-based-on-rare-earth-price-hikes "China Trade - Invest Based On Rare Earth Price Hikes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626125758/https://seekingalpha.com/article/4267839-china-trade-invest-based-on-rare-earth-price-hikes |date=June 26, 2022}}. ''seekingalpha.com''. Retrieved 25 February 2021.</ref> {{Dubious|date=July 2022}} After the [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état|2021 military coup]] in that country, future supplies of critical ores were possibly constrained. Additionally, it was speculated that the PRC could again reduce rare-earth exports to counter-act [[economic sanction]]s imposed by the US and EU countries. Rare-earth metals serve as crucial materials for [[electric vehicle]] manufacturing and high-tech military applications.<ref>S. Burns (Feb. 16, 2021). [https://agmetalminer.com/2021/02/16/rare-earths-are-the-next-geopolitical-chess-game/ "Rare earths are the next geopolitical chess game"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615124349/https://agmetalminer.com/2021/02/16/rare-earths-are-the-next-geopolitical-chess-game/ |date=June 15, 2022}}. ''MetalMiner.com''. Retrieved 25 February 2021.</ref>

In 2025, during the [[China–United States trade war]], China restricted exports of heavy rare earths to the United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Why China curbing rare earth exports is a blow to the US |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1drqeev36qo |work=BBC News |date=17 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=FACTBOX What strategic mineral exports has China restricted? |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/chinas-curbs-exports-strategic-minerals-2025-02-04/ |work=Reuters |date=4 April 2025}}</ref> Between 2020 and 2023, 70% of all rare earth compounds and metals imported into the United States came from China.<ref>{{cite news |title=China has a powerful card to play in its fight against Trump’s trade war |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/04/15/business/china-trumps-trade-war-rare-earth-intl-hnk/index.html |work=CNN |date=April 15, 2025}}</ref>

===Myanmar (Burma)===
[[Kachin State]] in Myanmar is the world's largest source of rare earths.<ref name=":03">{{cite web |date=2022-08-09 |title=New evidence shows massive and rapid expansion of illicit rare earths industry in Myanmar, fuelling human rights abuses, environmental destruction and funding military-linked militias |url=https://www.globalwitness.org/en/press-releases/new-evidence-shows-massive-and-rapid-expansion-illicit-rare-earths-industry-myanmar-fuelling-human-rights-abuses-environmental-destruction-and-funding-military-linked-militias/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Global Witness |language=en}}</ref> In 2021, China imported {{US$|200 million}} of rare earths from Myanmar in December 2021, exceeding 20,000 metric tons.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |date=2022-08-09 |title=Myanmar's poisoned mountains |url=https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/myanmars-poisoned-mountains/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Global Witness |language=en}}</ref> Rare earths were discovered near [[Pang War]] in [[Chipwi Township]] along the [[China–Myanmar border]] in the late 2010s.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |title=Illegal rare earth mining harms environment in Myanmar's Kachin state |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/mining-03102022184456.html |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Radio Free Asia |language=en}}</ref> As China has shut down domestic mines due to the detrimental environmental impact, it has largely outsourced rare-earth mining to Kachin State.<ref name=":1"/> 

Chinese companies and miners illegally set up operations in Kachin State without government permits, and instead circumvent the central government by working with a [[Border Guard Forces|Border Guard Force]] militia under the [[Tatmadaw]], formerly known as the [[New Democratic Army – Kachin]], which has profited from this extractive industry.<ref name=":1"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Makichuk |first=Dave |date=2021-05-03 |title=Is Myanmar's junta benefiting from rare-earth boom? |url=https://asiatimes.com/2021/05/is-myanmars-junta-benefitting-from-rare-earth-boom/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Asia Times |language=en-US}}</ref> {{As of|2022|March}}, 2,700 mining collection pools scattered across 300 separate locations were found in Kachin State, encompassing the area of [[Singapore]], an exponential increase from 2016.<ref name=":1"/> Land has also been seized from locals to conduct mining operations.<ref name=":1"/>

===Other countries===
As a result of the increased demand and tightening restrictions on exports of the metals from China, some countries are stockpiling rare-earth resources.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://business.financialpost.com/2011/09/06/eu-stockpiles-rare-earths-as-tensions-with-china-rise/ |work=Financial Post |title=EU stockpiles rare earths as tensions with China rise |agency=Reuters |date=September 6, 2011 |access-date=2011-09-07 |archive-date=July 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719233436/http://business.financialpost.com/2011/09/06/eu-stockpiles-rare-earths-as-tensions-with-china-rise/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Searches for alternative sources in [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Greenland]], and the [[United States]] are ongoing.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/10/business/global/10mineral.html?scp=10&sq=brazil&st=nyt |title=Canadian Firms Step Up Search for Rare-Earth Metals |agency=Reuters |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 9, 2009 |access-date=2009-09-15 |archive-date=April 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410095515/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/10/business/global/10mineral.html?scp=10&sq=brazil&st=nyt |url-status=live}}</ref> Mines in these countries were closed when China undercut world prices in the 1990s, and it will take a few years to restart production as there are many [[barriers to entry]].<ref name=Livergood2010/><ref name="Leifert2010">{{cite magazine |author=Leifert, H. |title=Restarting US rare earth production? |magazine=Earth |date=June 2010 |pages=20–21}}</ref> 

Significant sites under development outside China include [[Steenkampskraal mine|Steenkampskraal]] in South Africa, the world's highest grade rare earths and thorium mine, closed in 1963, but has been gearing to go back into production.<ref>{{cite magazine |editor-last=Casey |editor-first=Jessica |date=5 February 2022 |title=Monoceros Mineral Resources invests in Steenkampskraal Rare Earths |magazine=Global Mining Review |url=https://www.globalminingreview.com/finance-business/15022022/monoceros-mineral-resources-invests-in-steenkampskraal-rare-earths/ }}</ref> Over 80% of the infrastructure is already complete.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.steenkampskraal.com/the-mine/ |title=About The Mine |website=Steenkampskraal Rare Earths Mine |date=May 3, 2016 |language=en-US |access-date=2019-07-19 |archive-date=May 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517013624/https://www.steenkampskraal.com/the-mine/ |url-status=live}}</ref> 

Other mines include the Nolans Project in Central Australia, the [[Bokan Mountain]] project in Alaska, the remote [[Hoidas Lake]] project in northern Canada,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gwmg.ca/pdf/Insinger_Report.pdf |author=Lunn, J. |date=2006 |title=Great western minerals |location=London |publisher=Insigner Beaufort Equity Research |access-date=2008-04-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409121623/http://www.gwmg.ca/pdf/Insinger_Report.pdf |archive-date=2008-04-09}}</ref> and the [[Mount Weld]] project in Australia.<ref name=Wikinvest/><ref name="Leifert2010"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2838509920090831 |title=California mine digs in for 'green' gold rush |access-date=2010-03-22 |work=Reuters |date=August 30, 2009 |first=Steve |last=Gorman |archive-date=April 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410095515/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2838509920090831 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Hoidas Lake]] project has the potential to supply about 10% of the $1 billion of REE consumption that occurs in North America every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gwmg.ca/projects/hoidas-lake |title=Hoidas Lake, Saskatchewan |publisher=Great Western Mineral Group Ltd. |access-date=2008-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331102738/http://www.gwmg.ca/projects/hoidas-lake |archive-date=2009-03-31}}</ref> [[Vietnam]] signed an agreement in October 2010 to supply Japan with rare earths<ref name="supply deal">{{cite news
|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11661330
|title=Rare earths supply deal between Japan and Vietnam
|work=BBC News
|date=31 October 2010
|access-date=June 21, 2018
|archive-date=July 3, 2022
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703011024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11661330
|url-status=live
}}</ref> from its [[Tây Bắc|northwestern]] [[Lai Châu Province]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia-pacific/2010/10/2010103191334878158.html
|title=Vietnam signs major nuclear pacts |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|AlJazeera]] |date=31 October 2010 |access-date=31 October 2010}}</ref> The deal was never realized due to disagreements.<ref>{{cite news |last=VnExpress |title=Gần 10 năm chưa khai thác được đất hiếm |url=https://vnexpress.net/gan-10-nam-chua-khai-thac-duoc-dat-hiem-4537518.html |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=vnexpress.net |language=vi}}</ref>

The largest rare-earth deposit in the U.S. is at [[Mountain Pass rare earth mine|Mountain Pass]], California, sixty miles south of [[Las Vegas]]. Originally opened by [[Molycorp]], the deposit has been mined, off and on, since 1951.<ref name=Wikinvest/><ref>{{cite web |title=Mountain Pass Mine |publisher=Mindat |url=https://www.mindat.org/loc-11616.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909142430/https://www.mindat.org/loc-11616.html |archive-date=9 September 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> A second large deposit of REEs at Elk Creek in southeast [[Nebraska]]<ref name="Lasley-2022">{{cite magazine |last=Lasley |first=Shane |date=6 September 2022 |title=Elk Creek deposit proves to be rare earth |magazine=Metal Tech News |url=https://www.metaltechnews.com/story/2022/05/25/tech-metals/elk-creek-deposit-proves-to-be-rare-earth/947.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909141058/https://www.metaltechnews.com/story/2022/05/25/tech-metals/elk-creek-deposit-proves-to-be-rare-earth/947.html |archive-date=9 September 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> is under consideration by NioCorp Development Ltd <ref>{{cite web |title=Mining Venture Draws $200 Million in Tax Incentives and Red Flags (1) |url=https://news.bloombergtax.com/daily-tax-report-state/mining-venture-draws-200-million-in-tax-incentives-and-red-flags |access-date=2020-12-01 |website=news.bloombergtax.com |language=en |archive-date=June 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618141715/https://news.bloombergtax.com/daily-tax-report-state/mining-venture-draws-200-million-in-tax-incentives-and-red-flags |url-status=live}}</ref> who hopes to open a niobium, scandium, and titanium mine there.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.omaha.com/money/long-discussed-niobium-mine-in-southeast-nebraska-is-ready-to/article_33913f7a-93fa-11e7-9144-8f1cad9c36eb.html |title=Long-discussed niobium mine in southeast Nebraska is ready to move forward, if it gathers $1 billion in financing |access-date=2019-05-18 |archive-date=May 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511210056/https://www.omaha.com/money/long-discussed-niobium-mine-in-southeast-nebraska-is-ready-to/article_33913f7a-93fa-11e7-9144-8f1cad9c36eb.html |url-status=live}}</ref> That mine may be able to produce as much as 7,200 metric tons of ferro niobium and 95 metric tons of scandium trioxide annually.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://niocorp.com/wp-content/uploads/NIoCorp_Corporate_Presentation.pdf |title=NioCorp Superalloy Materials The Elk Creek Superalloy Materials Project |access-date=2019-05-18 |archive-date=August 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819204036/http://niocorp.com/wp-content/uploads/NIoCorp_Corporate_Presentation.pdf }}</ref> As of 2022, financing is still in the works.<ref name="Lasley-2022"/>

In the UK, Pensana has begun construction of their US$195 million rare-earth processing plant which secured funding from the UK government's Automotive Transformation Fund. The plant will process ore from the [[Longonjo#Economy|Longonjo mine]] in Angola and other sources as they become available.<ref>{{cite web |title=Building an independent and sustainable supply of magnet metal rare earths for the Electric Vehicle and Offshore Wind OEMs |date=18 August 2022 |publisher=Pensana Plc |url=https://pensana.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/RNS-REACH-Pensana-to-provide-magnet-metal-rare-earths-to-electric-vehicle-and-offshore-wind-OEMs_18August-2022-003.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909152152/https://pensana.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/RNS-REACH-Pensana-to-provide-magnet-metal-rare-earths-to-electric-vehicle-and-offshore-wind-OEMs_18August-2022-003.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Arnoldi">{{cite magazine |last=Arnoldi |first=Marleny |date=25 May 2022 |title=Pensana confirms $494m capital cost for its Saltend, Longonjo operations |magazine=Mining Weekly |url=https://www.miningweekly.com/article/pensana-confirms-494m-capital-cost-for-its-saltend-longonjo-operations-2022-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712220855/https://www.miningweekly.com/article/pensana-confirms-494m-capital-cost-for-its-saltend-longonjo-operations-2022-05-25 |archive-date=12 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The company are targeting production in late 2023, before ramping up to full capacity in 2024. Pensana aim to produce 12,500 metric tons of separated rare earths, including 4,500 metric tons of magnet metal rare earths.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pensana breaks ground at Saltend and secures ATF funding |date=22 July 2022 |website=Pensana PLC |url=https://pensana.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Pensana-Plc-RNS-Saltend-Ground-Breaking-22-July-2022-1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722105048/https://pensana.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Pensana-Plc-RNS-Saltend-Ground-Breaking-22-July-2022-1.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=UK's first magnet refinery given huge financial boost as first ever strategy for supply of critical minerals published |date=22 July 2022 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uks-first-magnet-refinery-given-huge-financial-boost-as-first-ever-strategy-for-supply-of-critical-minerals-published |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

Also under consideration for mining are sites such as [[Thor Lake]] in the [[Northwest Territories]], and various locations in [[Vietnam]].<ref name=Wikinvest/><ref name=Reuters/><ref name=Cbc2013-11-04>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/federal-minister-approves-n-w-t-rare-earth-mine-1.2356245
|title=Federal minister approves N.W.T. rare earth mine
|quote=It follows the recommendation from the Mackenzie Valley Environmental Review Board in July, and marks a major milestone in the company's effort to turn the project into an operating mine. Avalon claims Nechalacho is "the most advanced large heavy rare earth development project in the world".
|publisher=[[CBC News]]
|date=2013-11-04
|access-date=November 5, 2013
|archive-date=June 22, 2022
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622012302/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/federal-minister-approves-n-w-t-rare-earth-mine-1.2356245
|url-status=live
}}</ref> 

In 2010, a large deposit of rare-earth minerals was discovered in [[Kvanefjeld]] in southern [[Greenland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ggg.gl/Rare-Earth-Elements/Rare-Earth-Elements-at-Kvanefjeld.htm |title=Rare Earth Elements at Kvanefjeld |website=Greenland Minerals and Energy Ltd. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918165406/http://www.ggg.gl/Rare-Earth-Elements/Rare-Earth-Elements-at-Kvanefjeld.htm |archive-date=2010-09-18 |access-date=2010-11-10}}</ref> Pre-feasibility drilling at this site has confirmed significant quantities of black [[lujavrite]], which contains about 1% rare-earth oxides (REO).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ggg.gl/Projects/New-Multi-Element-Targets-and-Overall-Resource-Potential.htm |title=New Multi-Element Targets and Overall Resource Potential |website=Greenland Minerals and Energy Ltd. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101118075404/http://www.ggg.gl/Projects/New-Multi-Element-Targets-and-Overall-Resource-Potential.htm |archive-date=2010-11-18 |access-date=2010-11-10}}</ref> The [[European Union]] has urged Greenland to restrict Chinese development of rare-earth projects there, but as of early 2013, the [[government of Greenland]] has said that it has no plans to impose such restrictions.<ref>{{cite news |author=Carol Matlack |url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-02-10/chinese-workers-in-greenland |title=Chinese Workers—in Greenland? |date=February 10, 2013 |work=Business Week |access-date=March 9, 2013 |archive-date=February 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213141927/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-02-10/chinese-workers-in-greenland }}</ref> Many Danish politicians have expressed concerns that other nations, including China, could gain influence in thinly populated Greenland, given the number of foreign workers and investment that could come from Chinese companies in the near future because of the law passed December 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324077704578357792781721964 |title=Greenland Votes to Get Tough on Investors |first=Clemens |last=Bomsdorf |date=March 13, 2013 |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=10 February 2017 |archive-date=October 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028082449/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324077704578357792781721964 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In central [[Spain]], [[Province of Ciudad Real|Ciudad Real Province]], the proposed rare-earth mining project 'Matamulas' may provide, according to its developers, up to 2,100 Tn/year (33% of the annual UE demand). However, this project has been suspended by regional authorities due to social and environmental concerns.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.elmundo.es/cronica/2019/05/24/5ce58be121efa0e77f8b4651.html |title=Hay tierras raras aquí y están... en un lugar de La Mancha |date=2019-05-24 |website=ELMUNDO |language=es |access-date=2019-05-24 |archive-date=June 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623164720/https://www.elmundo.es/cronica/2019/05/24/5ce58be121efa0e77f8b4651.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Adding to potential mine sites, [[Australian Securities Exchange|ASX]] listed Peak Resources announced in February 2012, that their Tanzanian-based [[Ngualla]] project contained not only the 6th largest deposit by tonnage outside of China but also the highest grade of rare-earth elements of the 6.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asx.com.au/asxpdf/20120229/pdf/424pl5vn67q4h0.pdf |publisher=Peak Resources |title=Maiden Resource, Ngualla Rare Earth Project |website=ASX Release |date=February 29, 2012 |access-date=April 11, 2012 |archive-date=April 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416073235/http://www.asx.com.au/asxpdf/20120229/pdf/424pl5vn67q4h0.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[North Korea]] has been reported to have exported rare-earth ore to China, about US$1.88 million worth during May and June 2014.<ref name="Petrov">{{cite news |last1=Petrov |first1=Leonid |title=Rare earths bankroll North Korea's future |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/NH08Dg01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808102430/http://atimes.com/atimes/Korea/NH08Dg01.html |archive-date=August 8, 2012 |access-date=22 October 2018 |work=Asia Times |date=Aug 8, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.voakorea.com/a/north-korea-rare-earth/1966603.html |title=북한, 올 5~6월 희토류 중국 수출 크게 늘어 |date=July 28, 2014 |website=voakorea.com |language=ko |trans-title=North Korea Rare Earth exports to China increased significantly from May to June |access-date=February 10, 2017 |archive-date=March 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330104756/https://www.voakorea.com/a/north-korea-rare-earth/1966603.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In May 2012, researchers from two universities in Japan announced that they had discovered rare earths in [[Ehime Prefecture]], Japan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japan Discovers Domestic Rare Earths Reserve |url=http://www.brightwire.com/news/207869-japan-discovers-domestic-rare-earths-reserve |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723024000/http://www.brightwire.com/news/207869-japan-discovers-domestic-rare-earths-reserve |archive-date=2012-07-23 |publisher=BrightWire}}</ref>

In January 2023, Swedish state-owned mining company LKAB announced that it had discovered a deposit of over 1 million metric tons of rare earths in the country's [[Kiruna]] area, which would make it the largest such deposit in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/swedens-lkab-finds-europes-biggest-deposit-rare-earth-metals-2023-01-12/ |title=Sweden's LKAB finds Europe's biggest deposit of rare-earth metals |work=Reuters |date=13 January 2023}}</ref>

China processes about 90% of the world's REEs. As a result, the [[European Union]] imports practically all of its rare earth elements from China. The [[European Union Parliament]] considers this to a strategic risk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2022/733586/EPRS_ATA(2022)733586_EN.pdf|title=Securing the EU's supply of critical raw materials}}</ref> 

In 2024 American Rare Earths Inc. disclosed that its reserves near Wheatland Wyoming  totaled 2.34 billion metric tons, possibly the world's largest and larger than a separate 1.2 million metric ton deposit in northeastern Wyoming.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maio |first=Pat |date=February 7, 2024 |title=Rare Earths Discovery Near Wheatland So Big It Could Be World Leader |url=https://cowboystatedaily.com/2024/02/07/rare-earths-discovery-near-wheatland-so-big-it-could-be-world-leader/ |access-date=2024-02-15 |newspaper=cowboystatedaily.com |language=en}}</ref>

In June 2024, Rare Earths Norway found a rare-earth oxide deposit of 8.8 million metric tons in [[Telemark]], Norway, making it Europe's largest known rare-earth element deposit. The mining firm predicted that it would finish developing the first stage of mining in 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Meredith |first=Sam |date=2024-06-11 |title=Norway discovers Europe's largest deposit of rare earth metals |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/06/11/norway-discovers-europes-largest-deposit-of-rare-earth-metals.html |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

[[Ukraine]] holds significant rare earth deposits, which have been at the center of the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of the country]] and peace negotiations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The future of critical raw materials in Ukraine and the world |url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/07/the-future-of-critical-raw-materials-how-ukraine-plays-a-strategic-role-in-global-supply-chains/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250308143300/https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/07/the-future-of-critical-raw-materials-how-ukraine-plays-a-strategic-role-in-global-supply-chains/ |archive-date=2025-03-08 |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UKRAINE: Mining Investment Opportunities Critical Raw Materials |url=https://www.geo.gov.ua/wp-content/uploads/presentations/en/investment-opportunities-in-exploration-production-strategic-and-critical-minerals.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of Ukraine}}</ref>

====Malaysian refining plans====
In early 2011, Australian mining company [[Lynas]] was reported to be "hurrying to finish" a US$230 million rare-earth refinery on the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia's industrial port of [[Kuantan]]. The plant would refine ore&nbsp;— lanthanides concentrate from the [[Mount Weld]] mine in Australia. The ore would be trucked to [[Fremantle]] and transported by [[container ship]] to Kuantan. Within two years, Lynas was said to expect the refinery to be able to meet nearly a third of the world's demand for rare-earth materials, not counting [[China]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bradsher |first=Keith |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/09/business/energy-environment/09rare.html?ref=science |title=Taking a Risk for Rare Earths |work=The New York Times |date=March 8, 2011 |others=(March 9, 2011 p. B1 NY ed.) |access-date=2011-03-09 |archive-date=June 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615115941/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/09/business/energy-environment/09rare.html?ref=science |url-status=live}}</ref> The Kuantan development brought renewed attention to the Malaysian town of [[Bukit Merah, Perak#District of Kinta, Central Perak|Bukit Merah]] in [[Perak]], where a rare-earth mine operated by a [[Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings|Mitsubishi Chemical]] subsidiary, Asian Rare Earth, closed in 1994 and left [[#Environmental considerations|continuing environmental and health concerns]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pengguna.org.my/index.php/pembangunan/alam-sekitar/768-kronologi-peristiwa-di-kilang-nadir-bumi-bukit-merah |title=Kronologi Peristiwa di Kilang Nadir Bumi, Bukit Merah |trans-title=Chronology of Events at the Rare Earth Factory, Red Hill |language=ms |publisher=Penang Consumer Association |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-date=December 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204084605/https://pengguna.org.my/index.php/pembangunan/alam-sekitar/768-kronologi-peristiwa-di-kilang-nadir-bumi-bukit-merah }}</ref><ref name=NYT01>{{cite news |last=Bradsher |first=Keith |title=Mitsubishi Quietly Cleans Up Its Former Refinery |newspaper=The New York Times |date=8 March 2011 |others=(March 9, 2011 p. B4 NY ed.) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/09/business/energy-environment/09rareside.html |access-date=2011-03-09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229042639/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/09/business/energy-environment/09rareside.html |archive-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> 

In mid-2011, after protests, Malaysian government restrictions on the Lynas plant were announced. At that time, citing subscription-only ''[[Dow Jones Newswire]]'' reports, a ''[[Barron's (newspaper)|Barrons]]'' report said the Lynas investment was $730 million, and the projected share of the global market it would fill put at "about a sixth."<ref name="B01">{{cite web |last=Coleman |first=Murray |url=http://blogs.barrons.com/focusonfunds/2011/06/30/rare-earth-metals-etf-soars-as-plans-to-break-chinas-hold-suffer-setback/ |title=Rare Earth ETF Jumps As Plans To Break China's Hold Suffer Setback |work=Barron's |date=June 30, 2011 |access-date=2011-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703100420/http://blogs.barrons.com/focusonfunds/2011/06/30/rare-earth-metals-etf-soars-as-plans-to-break-chinas-hold-suffer-setback/ |archive-date=2011-07-03}}</ref> An independent review initiated by the Malaysian Government, and conducted by the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) in 2011 to address concerns of radioactive hazards, found no non-compliance with international radiation safety standards.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Report of the International Review Mission on the Radiation Safety Aspects of a Proposed Rare Earths Processing Facility (Lynas Project) |conference=(29 May – 3 June 2011) |url=http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/pdf/lynas-report2011.pdf |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |access-date=15 February 2018 |archive-date=12 November 2011 |date=2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112121737/http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/pdf/lynas-report2011.pdf}}</ref>

However, the Malaysian authorities confirmed that as of October 2011, Lynas was not given any permit to import any rare-earth ore into Malaysia. In February 2012, the Malaysian AELB (Atomic Energy Licensing Board) recommended that Lynas be issued a temporary operating license subject to meeting a number of conditions. In September 2014, Lynas was issued a 2-year full operating stage license by the AELB.<ref name="MI 20140902">{{cite news |last1=Ng |first1=Eileen |title=Lynas gets full operating licence before TOL expiry date |url=http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/lynas-gets-full-operating-licence-before-tol-expiry-date |newspaper=The [[Malaysian Insider]] |access-date=3 September 2014 |date=2 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904034335/http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/lynas-gets-full-operating-licence-before-tol-expiry-date |archive-date=4 September 2014}}</ref>

In November 2024, [[Minister of Economy (Malaysia)|economy minister]] [[Rafizi Ramli]] said he hoped Malaysia is able to produce rare-earth elements within three years, through discussions with China to provide technology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reporters |first=F. M. T. |date=2024-11-17 |title=Govt targets domestic REE processing within 3 years |url=https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/11/17/govt-targets-domestic-ree-processing-within-3-years/ |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=Free Malaysia Today {{!}} FMT |language=en}}</ref> In the past, plans to mine rare-earth elements at [[Kedah]] caused concerns of destroying forest reserves and harming water catchment areas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reporters |first=F. M. T. |date=2020-12-03 |title=Ministry pours cold water on Kedah's rare earth mining plans |url=https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2020/12/03/no-rare-earth-mining-without-technical-approvals-says-energy-and-natural-resources-ministry/ |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=Free Malaysia Today {{!}} FMT |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rahman |first=Noorazura Abdul |date=2024-10-17 |title=NGO claims logging activities behind Kedah's worsening floods {{!}} New Straits Times |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2024/10/1121241/ngo-claims-logging-activities-behind-kedahs-worsening-floods |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=NST Online |language=en}}</ref>

===Other sources===

====Mine tailings====
Significant quantities of rare-earth oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of [[uranium ore]], [[shale]], and [[loparite]] mining at [[Sillamäe]], [[Estonia]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Turning a Problem Into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia |last=Rofer |first=Cheryl K. |author2=Tõnis Kaasik |series=Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies |year=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7923-6187-9 |page=229}}</ref> Due to the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3,000 metric tons per year, representing around 2% of world production.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estonia's rare earth break China's market grip |author=Anneli Reigas |newspaper=AFP |date=2010-11-30 |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |access-date=2010-12-01 |archive-date=May 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513001130/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Similar resources are suspected in the western United States, where [[gold rush]]-era mines are believed to have discarded large amounts of rare earths, because they had no value at the time.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gold Rush Trash is Information Age Treasure |date=July 21, 2013 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/07/21/gold-rush-era-discards-could-fuel-cellphones-tvs/2572761/ |work=USA Today |last=Cone |first=Tracie |access-date=July 21, 2013 |archive-date=June 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615124340/https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/07/21/gold-rush-era-discards-could-fuel-cellphones-tvs/2572761/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Ocean mining====
In January 2013 a Japanese deep-sea research vessel obtained seven deep-sea mud core samples from the Pacific Ocean seafloor at 5,600 to 5,800 meters depth, approximately {{convert|250|km|mi}} south of the island of [[Minami-Tori-Shima]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Seabed offers brighter hope in rare-earth hunt |url=http://asia.nikkei.com/Japan-Update/Seabed-offers-brighter-hope-in-rare-earth-hunt |access-date=11 December 2016 |work=Nikkei Asian Review |agency=Nikkei Inc. |date=25 November 2014 |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220114144/http://asia.nikkei.com/Japan-Update/Seabed-offers-brighter-hope-in-rare-earth-hunt |url-status=live}}</ref> The research team found a mud layer 2 to 4 meters beneath the seabed with concentrations of up to 0.66% rare-earth oxides. A potential deposit might compare in grade with the ion-absorption-type deposits in southern China that provide the bulk of Chinese REO mine production, which grade in the range of 0.05% to 0.5% REO.<ref>{{cite web |title=Discovery of rare earths around Minami-Torishima |url=http://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/utokyo-research/research-news/discovery-of-rare-earths-around-minami-torishima/ |website=UTokyo Research |publisher=University of Tokyo |access-date=11 December 2016 |date=2 May 2013 |archive-date=June 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620002602/https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/utokyo-research/research-news/discovery-of-rare-earths-around-minami-torishima/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last1=Zhi Li |first1=Ling |last2=Yang |first2=Xiaosheng |title=China's rare earth ore deposits and beneficiation techniques |url=http://www.eurare.eu/docs/eres2014/firstSession/XiaoshengYang.pdf |conference=1st European Rare Earth Resources Conference |publisher=European Commission for the 'Development of a sustainable exploitation scheme for Europe's Rare Earth ore deposits' |place=Milos, Greece |access-date=11 December 2016 |date=4 September 2014 |archive-date=January 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119193604/http://www.eurare.eu/docs/eres2014/firstSession/XiaoshengYang.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Waste and recycling====
Another recently developed source of rare earths is [[electronic waste]] and other [[waste]]s that have significant rare-earth components.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Um |first1=Namil |title=Hydrometallurgical recovery process of rare-earth elements from waste: main application of acid leaching with devised diagram |date=July 2017 |publisher=INTECH |isbn=978-953-51-3401-5 |pages=41–60}}</ref> Advances in [[recycling|recycling technology]] have made the extraction of rare earths from these materials less expensive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.recyclinginternational.com/recycling-news/6976/research-and-legislation/belgium/new-liquid-extraction-frontier-rare-earths |date=March 26, 2013 |title=New liquid extraction frontier for rare earths? |publisher=Recycling International |access-date=10 February 2017 |archive-date=July 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729112611/http://www.recyclinginternational.com/recycling-news/6976/research-and-legislation/belgium/new-liquid-extraction-frontier-rare-earths }}</ref> Recycling plants operate in Japan, where an estimated 300,000 tons of rare earths are found in unused electronics.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tabuchi |first=Hiroko |author-link=Hiroko Tabuchi |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/05/business/global/05recycle.html |title=Japan Recycles Minerals From Used Electronics |work=[[New York Times]] |date=October 5, 2010 |access-date=February 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622084534/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/05/business/global/05recycle.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[France]], the [[Rhodia (company)|Rhodia]] group is setting up two factories, in [[La Rochelle]] and [[Saint-Fons]], that will produce 200 tons of rare earths a year from used [[fluorescent lamp]]s, magnets, and batteries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rhodia.com/en/news_center/news_releases/Recycle_rare_earths_031011.tcm |title=Rhodia to recycle rare earths from magnets |website=Solvay — Rhodia |date=October 3, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140421050640/http://www.rhodia.com/en/news_center/news_releases/Recycle_rare_earths_031011.tcm |archive-date=2014-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.recyclinginternational.com/recycling-news/3948/e-waste-and-batteries/france/rhodia-expands-rare-earth-recycling-reach |date=October 11, 2011 |title=Rhodia expands rare earth recycling reach |publisher=Recycling International |access-date=10 February 2017 |archive-date=July 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729112600/http://www.recyclinginternational.com/recycling-news/3948/e-waste-and-batteries/france/rhodia-expands-rare-earth-recycling-reach |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Coal]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sorokin |first1=Anatoliy P |last2=Konyushok |first2=Andrey A |last3=Ageev |first3=Oleg A |last4=Zarubina |first4=Natalia V |last5=Ivanov |first5=Vladimir V |last6=Wang |first6=Jinxi |date=2019 |title=Distribution of rare earth and selected trace elements in combustion products of Yerkovetskoe brown coal deposit (Amur Region, Russia) |journal=Energy Exploration & Exploitation |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=1721–1736 |doi=10.1177/0144598719862416 |jstor=26785615 |issn=0144-5987|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019EExEx..37.1721S }}</ref> and coal by-products, such as [[Coal combustion products|ash]] and sludge, are a potential source of critical elements including rare-earth elements (REE) with estimated amounts in the range of 50 million metric tons.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wencai Zhang |author2=Mohammad Rezaee |author3=Abhijit Bhagavatula |author4=Yonggai Li |author5=John Groppo |author6=Rick Honaker |s2cid=128509001 |journal=International Journal of Coal Preparation and Utilization |doi=10.1080/19392699.2015.1033097 |volume=35 |year=2015 |issue=6 |pages=295–330 |title=A Review of the Occurrence and Promising Recovery Methods of Rare Earth Elements from Coal and Coal By-Products|bibcode=2015IJCPU..35..295Z }}</ref>

===Methods===
A 2022 study mixed [[fly ash]] with carbon black and then sent a 1-second current pulse through the mixture, heating it to {{Convert|3000|C}}. The fly ash contains microscopic bits of glass that encapsulate the metals. The heat shatters the glass, exposing the rare earths. Flash heating also converts [[phosphate]]s into oxides, which are more soluble and extractable. Using hydrochloric acid at concentrations less than 1% of conventional methods, the process extracted twice as much material.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kean |first=Sam |date=February 9, 2022 |title=An electric jolt salvages valuable metals from waste |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/electric-jolt-salvages-valuable-metals-waste |access-date=2022-02-15 |website=www.science.org |language=en}}</ref>