Editing Racial discrimination (section)

=== United States ===
{{main|Racial discrimination in the United States}}
With regard to employment, multiple [[audit study|audit studies]] have found strong evidence of racial discrimination in the United States' labor market, with magnitudes of employers' preferences of white applicants found in these studies ranging from 50% to 240%. Other such studies have found significant evidence of discrimination in car sales, home insurance applications, provision of medical care, and hailing taxis.<ref name=annurev>{{cite journal|last1=Pager|first1=Devah|last2=Shepherd|first2=Hana|title=The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|date=August 2008|volume=34|issue=1|pages=181–209|doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740|pmc=2915460|pmid=20689680}}</ref> There is some debate regarding the method used to signal race in these studies.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaddis|first1=S. Michael|title=How Black Are Lakisha and Jamal? Racial Perceptions from Names Used in Correspondence Audit Studies|journal=[[Sociological Science]]|date=2017|volume=4|pages=469–489|doi=10.15195/v4.a19|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaddis|first1=S. Michael|title=Racial/Ethnic Perceptions from Hispanic Names: Selecting Names to Test for Discrimination|journal=[[Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World]]|date=2017|volume=3|pages=237802311773719|doi=10.1177/2378023117737193|url=http://osf.io/43frs/|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Employment ====
[[Racial discrimination in the workplace]] falls into two basic categories:
*'''Disparate Treatment''': An employer's policies discriminate based upon any immutable racial characteristic, such as skin, eye or hair color, and certain facial features;
*'''Disparate Impact''': Although an employer may not intend to discriminate based on racial characteristics, its policies nonetheless have an adverse effect based upon race.

Discrimination may occur at any point in the employment process, including pre-employment inquiries, hiring practices, compensation, work assignments and conditions, privileges granted to employees, promotion, employee discipline and termination.<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts About Race/Color Discrimination|url=https://www.eeoc.gov/facts/fs-race.html|website=U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|access-date=16 August 2017|date=8 September 2008}}</ref>

Researchers [[Marianne Bertrand]] and [[Sendhil Mullainathan]], at the [[University of Chicago]] and [[MIT]] found in a 2004 study, that there was widespread racial discrimination in the workplace. In their study, candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" were 50% more likely than those whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black" to receive callbacks for interviews. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in [[Discrimination in the United States|the United States' long history of discrimination]] (e.g., [[Jim Crow laws]], etc.)<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1257/0002828042002561| title = Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination| journal = [[American Economic Review]]| volume = 94| issue = 4| pages = 991–1013| year = 2004| last1 = Bertrand | first1 = M.| last2 = Mullainathan | first2 = S.| citeseerx = 10.1.1.321.8621}}</ref>

[[Devah Pager]], a sociologist at [[Princeton University]], sent matched pairs of applicants to apply for jobs in Milwaukee and New York City, finding that black applicants received callbacks or job offers at half the rate of equally qualified whites.<ref>"Discrimination in a Low Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment," 2009, ''American Sociological Review'', by Devah Pager, [[Bruce Western]], and Bart Bonikowski</ref><ref>"The Mark of a Criminal Record," 2003, ''American Journal of Sociology'', by Devah Pager</ref> Another recent audit by [[UCLA]] sociologist S. Michael Gaddis examines the job prospects of black and white college graduates from elite private and high-quality state higher education institutions. This research finds that blacks who graduate from an elite school such as Harvard have about the same prospect of getting an interview as whites who graduate from a state school such as UMass Amherst.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaddis|first1=S. M.|title=Discrimination in the Credential Society: An Audit Study of Race and College Selectivity in the Labor Market|journal=[[Social Forces]]|date=June 2015|volume=93|issue=4|pages=1451–1479|doi=10.1093/sf/sou111|s2cid=145386374|url=http://osf.io/6qjue/}}</ref>

A 2001 study of [[Evaluation|workplace evaluation]] in a large U.S. company showed that black supervisors rate white subordinates lower than average and vice versa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Elvira|first1=Marta|last2=Town|first2=Robert|date=2001-10-01|title=The Effects of Race and Worker Productivity on Performance Evaluations|journal=Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=4|pages=571–590|doi=10.1111/0019-8676.00226|issn=1468-232X}}</ref>

Research indicates that [[Unemployment in the United States|unemployment]] rates are higher for blacks and Latinos than for whites.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Perry|first1=Justin C.|title=The costs of racism on workforce entry and work adjustment.|date=2016|url=http://content.apa.org/books/14852-010|work=The cost of racism for people of color: Contextualizing experiences of discrimination.|pages=203–227|editor-last=Alvarez|editor-first=Alvin N.|place=Washington|publisher=American Psychological Association|language=en|doi=10.1037/14852-010|isbn=978-1-4338-2095-3|access-date=2020-08-09|last2=Pickett|first2=Lela L.|editor2-last=Liang|editor2-first=Christopher T. H.|editor3-last=Neville|editor3-first=Helen A.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Heberle|first1=Amy E.|last2=Rapa|first2=Luke J.|last3=Farago|first3=Flora|date=2020|title=Critical consciousness in children and adolescents: A systematic review, critical assessment, and recommendations for future research.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=146|issue=6|pages=525–551|doi=10.1037/bul0000230|pmid=32271028|s2cid=215618919|issn=1939-1455|url=https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=humansci_facultypubs}}</ref>

==== Housing ====
{{main|Housing discrimination in the United States}}
Multiple experimental audit studies conducted in the United States have found that blacks and Hispanics experience discrimination in about one in five and one in four housing searches, respectively.<ref name=annurev/>

A 2014 study also found evidence of racial discrimination in an American rental apartment market.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ewens|first1=Michael|last2=Tomlin|first2=Bryan|last3=Wang|first3=Liang Choon|title=Statistical Discrimination or Prejudice? A Large Sample Field Experiment|journal=Review of Economics and Statistics|date=March 2014|volume=96|issue=1|pages=119–34|doi=10.1162/REST_a_00365|citeseerx=10.1.1.244.8241|s2cid=13803945}}</ref>

Researchers found in contrast to White families, families of color were led to obtain housing in poor, low-quality communities due to [[discrimination]] during the home-buying process.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Santiago-Rivera|first1=Azara L.|title=The impact of racism on communities of color: Historical contexts and contemporary issues.|work=The cost of racism for people of color: Contextualizing experiences of discrimination.|pages=229–245|place=Washington|publisher=American Psychological Association|isbn=978-1-4338-2095-3|last2=Adames|first2=Hector Y.|last3=Chavez-Dueñas|first3=Nayeli Y.|last4=Benson-Flórez|first4=Gregory|year=2016|doi=10.1037/14852-011}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

Persons affected by Homelessness also show a large disparity with more individuals being minorities in the United States. We Can Now is a Texas-based nonprofit that serves these people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Local outreach group take on homeless equality |url=https://spectrumlocalnews.com/tx/south-texas-el-paso/news/2022/05/17/homeless-equality-outreach |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=spectrumlocalnews.com |language=en}}</ref>