Editing Race and intelligence (section)

===Education===
Several studies have proposed that a large part of the gap in IQ test performance can be attributed to differences in quality of education.<ref>{{harvnb|Manly et al.|2002}} and {{harvnb|Manly et al.|2004}}</ref> [[Racial discrimination]] in education has been proposed as one possible cause of differences in educational quality between races.<ref>{{harvnb|Mickelson|2003}}</ref> According to a paper by Hala Elhoweris, Kagendo Mutua, Negmeldin Alsheikh and Pauline Holloway, teachers' referral decisions for students to participate in [[gifted education|gifted and talented]] educational programs were influenced in part by the students' ethnicity.<ref>{{harvnb|Elhoweris et al.|2005}}</ref>

The [[Abecedarian Early Intervention Project]], an intensive early childhood education project, was also able to bring about an average IQ gain of 4.4 points at age 21 in the black children who participated in it compared to controls.<ref name="Campbell et al. 2002"/> [[Arthur Jensen]] agreed that the Abecedarian project demonstrated that education can have a significant effect on IQ, but also declared his view that no educational program thus far had been able to reduce the black–white IQ gap by more than a third, and that differences in education are thus unlikely to be its only cause.<ref>{{harvnb|Miele|2002|p=133}}</ref>

A series of studies by [[Joseph Fagan]] and Cynthia Holland measured the effect of prior exposure to the kind of cognitive tasks posed in IQ tests on test performance. Assuming that the IQ gap was the result of lower exposure to tasks using the cognitive functions usually found in IQ tests among African American test takers, they prepared a group of African Americans in this type of tasks before taking an IQ test. The researchers found that there was no subsequent difference in performance between the African-Americans and white test takers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fagan |first1=Joseph F |last2=Holland |first2=Cynthia R |year=2002 |title=Equal opportunity and racial differences in IQ |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_intelligence_2002_30_4/page/361 |journal=Intelligence |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=361–387 |doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00080-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fagan |first1=J.F. |last2=Holland |first2=C.R. |year=2007 |title=Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing |journal=Intelligence |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=319–334 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.009}}</ref> Daley and Onwuegbuzie conclude that Fagan and Holland demonstrate that "differences in knowledge between black people and white people for intelligence test items can be erased when equal opportunity is provided for exposure to the information to be tested".{{sfn|Daley|Onwuegbuzie|2011}} A similar argument is made by [[David Marks (psychologist)|David Marks]] who argues that IQ differences correlate well with differences in literacy suggesting that developing literacy skills through education causes an increase in IQ test performance.<ref name="Marks, D.F. 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=D.F. |year=2010 |title=IQ variations across time, race, and nationality: An artifact of differences in literacy skills |journal=Psychological Reports |volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=643–664 |doi=10.2466/pr0.106.3.643-664 |pmid=20712152 |s2cid=12179547}}</ref><ref name="psychologytoday.com">{{cite magazine |last=Barry |first=Scott |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/201008/the-flynn-effect-and-iq-disparities-among-races-ethnicities-and-nations- |title=The Flynn Effect and IQ Disparities Among Races, Ethnicities, and Nations: Are There Common Links? |magazine=Psychology Today |date=2010-08-23 |access-date=2014-08-22 |archive-date=2023-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320043730/https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/beautiful-minds/201008/the-flynn-effect-and-iq-disparities-among-races-ethnicities-and-nations |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2003 study found that two variables—[[stereotype threat]] and the degree of educational attainment of children's fathers—partially explained the black–white gap in cognitive ability test scores, undermining the hereditarian view that they stemmed from immutable genetic factors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKay |first1=Patrick F. |last2=Doverspike |first2=Dennis |last3=Bowen-Hilton |first3=Doreen |last4=McKay |first4=Quintonia D. |title=The Effects of Demographic Variables and Stereotype Threat on Black/White Differences in Cognitive Ability Test Performance |journal=Journal of Business and Psychology |date=2003 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1023/A:1025062703113 |s2cid=142317051}}</ref>