Editing Political philosophy (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of political thought}}
[[File:Half Portraits of the Great Sage and Virtuous Men of Old - Confucius.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Painting of a man with a long beard and mustache wearing traditional Chinese scholarly robes|[[Confucius]] saw the virtue of [[Ren (philosophy)|humaneness or benevolence]] as the foundation of social order.<ref name="Bai 2013 191–195">{{harvnb|Bai|2013|pp=191–195}}</ref>]]

Political philosophy has its roots in [[Ancient history|antiquity]] and many foundational concepts of Western political thought emerged in [[ancient Greek philosophy]]. Early influential contributions were made by the historian [[Thucydides]] (460–400 BCE), who inspired the school of realism by analyzing power relations and self-interest as central political factors.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 183]}} | {{harvnb|Korab-Karpowicz|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfcoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1, 6–7]}} }}</ref> [[Plato]] (428–348 BCE) discussed the role of the state, its relation to the citizens, the nature of justice, and forms of government. He was critical of democracy and favored a [[utopian]] monarchy ruled by a wise and benevolent [[philosopher king]] to promote the common good.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sankowski|2005|pp=730–731}} | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 183–184]}} | {{harvnb|Korab-Karpowicz|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfcoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16, 20, 23–26]}} }}</ref> His student [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE) objected to Plato's utopianism, preferring a more practical approach to ensure [[political stability]] and avoid [[extremism]]. He defended [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|perfectionism]], asserting that humans have an inborn goal to develop their [[Rationality|rational]] and moral capacities and that the state should foster this tendency.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sankowski|2005|p=731}} | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 184]}} | {{harvnb|Korab-Karpowicz|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PfcoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34, 44–45, 51, 53]}} }}</ref> In [[Roman philosophy]], the stateman [[Cicero]] (106–43 BCE) infused earlier Greek philosophy with [[Stoicism]]. He asserted that political action should be guided by [[reason]] rather than emotion and supported political participation following the [[meritocratic]] ideal of rule by the capable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stevens|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7IhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158 158–159]}} | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 184–185]}} }}</ref>

Diverse traditions of political thought also developed in [[ancient China]]. [[Confucianism]], initiated by [[Confucius]] (551–479 BCE), saw the virtue of [[Ren (philosophy)|humaneness or benevolence]] as the foundation of social order and norms. It sought to balance conflicting interests between [[Private sphere|private]] and [[public sphere]]s, seeing society as an extension of the family.<ref name="Bai 2013 191–195"/> [[Taoism]], another tradition, focused on the relation between humans and nature, arguing that humans should act in harmony with [[Tao|the natural order of the universe]] while avoiding excessive desires. It is sometimes associated with anarchism because of its emphasis on natural order, spontaneity, and rejection of coercive authority.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bai|2013|pp=195–196}} | {{harvnb|Ames|1983|pp=27–28, 30, 33–34}} | {{harvnb|Angle|2022|loc=§ 2.5 Zhuangzi: Rejecting Governance}} }}</ref> [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], a realist school of thought, proposed that effective governance of large states requires strict laws based on rewards and punishments to control the harmful effects of personal self-interest.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pines|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bai|2013|pp=197–198}} }}</ref> In [[ancient India]], various social and political theories emerged in the 2nd millennium BCE, recorded in the [[Rig Veda]], like the idea that the social order is naturally divided into [[Caste system in India|castes]], each fulfilling a different role in society.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Raghuramaraju|2013|pp=200, 204}} | {{harvnb|Inayatullah|1998|loc=§ Varna}} }}</ref> The [[Arthashastra]], traditionally attributed to [[Chanakya|Kautilya]] (375–283 BCE),<ref>{{harvnb|Whatmore|2021|loc=§ Definitions and Justifications}}</ref> was a political treatise on the essential components of states, such as king, ministers, territory, and army, describing their nature and interaction.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Raghuramaraju|2013|pp=202–204}} | {{harvnb|Inayatullah|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> [[Buddhist]] political thought, starting in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, rejected the strict caste division of Hindu society, focusing instead on universal equality, [[Sangha|brotherhood]], and the reduction of everyone's [[Duḥkha|suffering]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Raghuramaraju|2013|pp=204–207}} | {{harvnb|Moore|2023|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

[[File:Bust of Ibn Khaldun (Casbah of Bejaia, Algeria).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Bust of a man with a turban and a beard|[[Ibn Khaldun]] distinguished different types of states depending on the primary interests they serve.<ref name="Khan 2019 183–184">{{harvnb|Khan|2019|pp=183–184}}</ref>]]

Political philosophy in the [[medieval period]] was characterized by the interplay between ancient Greek thought and religion.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sigmund|2013|p=25}} | {{harvnb|Sankowski|2005|p=731}} | {{harvnb|Hampsher-Monk|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> [[Augustine]] (354–430 CE) saw states in the human world as fundamentally flawed compared to the divine ideal but also regarded them as vehicles for human improvement and the establishment of peace and order.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sigmund|2013|p=27}} | {{harvnb|Mattox|loc=Lead section, § 1c. The Augustinian World View}} }}</ref> Influenced by Augustine's philosophy, [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274 CE) developed [[natural law theory]] by synthesizing [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] and [[Christian philosophy]]. He argued that law serves the common good, positing that God rules the world according to the [[eternal law]] while humans participate in this plan by following the natural law, which reflects the moral order and can be known directly.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sigmund|2013|p=28}} | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186]}} | {{harvnb|Hampsher-Monk|1998|loc=4. Medieval}} }}</ref>

In the Arabic–Persian tradition, philosophers sought to integrate Ancient Greek philosophy with [[Islamic philosophy|Islamic thought]]. According to [[Al-Farabi]] (872–950), the state is a cooperative entity in which individuals voluntarily work together for common prosperity. Similar to Plato's vision, he imagines a hierarchical structure in which wise philosophers rule.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Khan|2019|pp=172–173}} | {{harvnb|March|2013|pp=216–217}} }}</ref> [[Al-Mawardi]] (972–1058) developed a complex theory of [[caliphates]], examining how this form of government combines religious and political authority in the person of the caliph.<ref>{{harvnb|Khan|2019|pp=176–178}}</ref> Following a descriptive approach, [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406) distinguished between natural states, which serve the worldly interests of the rulers, rational states, which serve the worldly interests of the people, and caliphates, which serve both worldly and [[Afterlife|otherworldly]] interests of the people.<ref name="Khan 2019 183–184"/> Other influential contributions were made by [[Avicenna]] (980–1037), [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058–1111), and [[Averroes]] (1126–1198).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Khan|2019|p=172}} | {{harvnb|March|2013|pp=216–217}} }}</ref> Meanwhile in China starting roughly 960 CE, [[neo-Confucian]] thinkers argued for [[decentralized]] governance. They identified two main functions of the government: to organize the social order and to [[Moral education|morally educate]] citizens.<ref>{{harvnb|Angle|2022|loc=§ 4. The Neo-Confucian Era}}</ref>

In [[early modern philosophy]], the medieval focus on religion was replaced by a [[Secularism|secular]] outlook. The statesman [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] (1469–1527) defended a radical form of political realism, emphasizing the importance of power and pragmatic governance in which [[the ends justify the means]].<ref name="186–187"/> [[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588–1679) tried to provide a rational foundation for secular states. He argued that humans are naturally driven by [[Psychological egoism|egoism]], leading to a [[Bellum omnium contra omnes|war of all against all]] that can only be avoided through an [[authoritarian state]] justified by a common [[social contract]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sankowski|2005|p=731}} | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 188]}} }}</ref> As a founder of liberalism, [[John Locke]] (1632–1704) also based the state on the consent of the governed but prioritized individual freedom over state power. He suggested that humans are born free and equal, and that the primary objective of the state is to protect this natural condition.<ref name="Sankowski 2005 731–732"/> [[David Hume]] (1711–1776) rejected social contracts as the foundation of the state, asserting instead that governments typically evolve without a prior plan and are accepted by the people because of their utility.<ref>{{harvnb|McArthur|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=szXcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA489 489–490]}}</ref> [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] (1712–1778) introduced the concept of the [[general will]], which is the will of the people to realize the common good.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sankowski|2005|p=732}} | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 188]}} | {{harvnb|Stevens|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7IhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 250]}} | {{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ Rousseau and the General Will}} }}</ref> Influenced by Rousseau, [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) argued that laws should reflect the general will of the people, asserting that every citizen has the fundamental right to freedom and the duty to uphold the social contract.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rauscher|2024|loc=Lead section, § 2. Freedom as the Basis of the State, § 3. Social Contract}} | {{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ Kant}} }}</ref> [[Edmund Burke]] (1729–1797), often considered the father of conservatism, stressed the importance of the accumulated wisdom of past generations while opposing radical change, such as the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Laslett 2006 loc=§ The Federalist, Burke, and Paine"/>

[[File:Hannah Arendt auf dem 1. Kulturkritikerkongress, Barbara Niggl Radloff, FM-2019-1-5-9-16 (cropped) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Black-and-white photo of a smiling woman with curly hair|[[Hannah Arendt]] examined the nature of totalitarian regimes.<ref name="Tömmel 2025 loc=§ 3. Arendt's Concept of Totalitarianism">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Yar|loc=§ 3. On Totalitarianism}} | {{harvnb|Tömmel|d'Entreves|2025|loc=§ 3. Arendt's Concept of Totalitarianism}} }}</ref>]]

[[Jeremy Bentham]] (1748–1832) developed [[utilitarianism]], promoting the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873) adapted this philosophy to support classical liberalism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 189, 191]}} | {{harvnb|Sankowski|2005|pp=732–733}} | {{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ The Utilitarian Tradition}} }}</ref> According to [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (1770–1831), the role of the state is the embodiment of ethical life and rational freedom, which he saw best realized in conservative, constitutional monarchies.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA190 190]}} | {{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ Hegel}} }}</ref> Influenced by Hegel, [[Karl Marx]] (1818–1883) and [[Friedrich Engels]] (1820–1895) analyzed the economic forces and class conflicts in capitalist societies, calling for a [[Communist revolution|revolution to replace capitalism with socialism and communism]].<ref name="Sankowski 2005 733"/> Another radical reconceptualization of the social order was proposed by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865), often regarded as the father of [[anarchism]], who rejected state authority as an obstacle to liberty and equality.<ref name="Laslett 2006 loc=§ Anarchism">{{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ Anarchism}}</ref>{{efn|He is known for the slogan ''[[Property is theft]]''.<ref name="Laslett 2006 loc=§ Anarchism">{{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ Anarchism}}</ref>}}

In the 20th century, interest in political philosophy declined as a result of criticisms of its normative claims and a shifting interest towards the more descriptive discipline of [[political science]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ Twentieth-Century Political Thought}} | {{harvnb|Plant|1998|loc=§ 2. The Critique of Political Philosophy}} }}</ref> A central topic in the philosophy of [[Hannah Arendt]] (1906–1975) was the nature of [[totalitarian regimes]], exemplified by [[Nazi Germany]] and Soviet [[Stalinism]]. She highlighted both their ability to mobilize the population through simplistic ideologies and their use of terror as an [[end in itself]].<ref name="Tömmel 2025 loc=§ 3. Arendt's Concept of Totalitarianism"/> [[John Rawls]] (1921–2002) explored the nature of [[justice as fairness]] and examined the legitimate use of power in liberal democracies.<ref name="books.google.com"/> Inspired by Rawls, [[Robert Nozick]] (1938–2002) defended libertarianism, supporting a minimal state that protects individual rights and liberties.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 195]}} | {{harvnb|Mack|2024|loc=Lead}} }}</ref> The [[Postmodern philosophy|postmodern]] thinker [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) analyzed power dynamics within society, with particular interest in how various societal institutions, such as [[medical]] and [[correctional institution]]s, shape human behavior through [[Power-knowledge|the interplay of knowledge and power]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Whatmore|2021|loc=§ Michel Foucault and governmentality}} | {{harvnb|Gutting|Oksala|2022|loc=§ 3. Major Works}} }}</ref> In [[Indian political philosophy]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]] (1869–1948) argued for [[Swaraj|self-rule]] and [[Satyagraha|nonviolent resistance]] to [[colonialism]] while seeking to dismantle the caste system to achieve equality.<ref>{{harvnb|Inayatullah|1998|loc=§ 4. Varna}}</ref> [[Sri Aurobindo]] (1872–1950) advocated for [[religious nationalism]], which formed part of his broader philosophical worldview describing the spiritual evolution of the world as a whole.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Verma|2000|pp=47–48}} | {{harvnb|Inayatullah|1998|loc=§ 5. Structure, history and the cycle}} }}</ref> In China, [[Chinese Marxism|Marxism was reinterpreted]] and combined with Confucian thought, considering [[peasantry]] rather than the working class as the main force behind the communist revolution.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Qi|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nxWkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99]}} | {{harvnb|Tian|2009|pp=512–513}} }}</ref> In the [[Islamic world]], [[Islamic modernism]] sought to reconcile traditional Muslim teachings with [[modernity]].<ref>{{harvnb|March|2009|loc=Lead section}}</ref>