Editing Peshawar (section)

=== Early modern history ===

==== Mughal empire ====
[[File:MKmosque.jpg|thumb|Bestowed by [[Ali Mardan Khan|Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan]] in 1630, the white-marble façade of the [[Mohabbat Khan Mosque]] is one of Peshawar's most iconic sights.]]
[[File:PeshawarMahabKhanMosch.jpg|thumb|The interior of the Mohabbat Khan Mosque is elaborately [[fresco]]ed with elegant and intricately detailed floral and geometric motifs.]]
Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia. The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods, peoples, and ideas would pass along trade routes.<ref name="Richards" /> Its importance as a trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel-loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586.<ref name="Richards">{{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&q=peshawar+mughal&pg=PA50 |access-date=24 March 2017 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307070309/https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&q=peshawar+mughal&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mughal rule in the area was tenuous, as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley, while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign of [[Akbar]].<ref>Akbar Nama, trans. H. Beveridge, vol. 3, p. 715 quoted in Dani, Peshawar. p. 102. Whereas according to Nizam ai-Din Ahmad it was "on the [next day]" that Akbar sent Zain Khan Kukah "with a well equipped army against the Afghans of Sawad (Swat) and Bajaur, for the extirpation of those turbulent tubes," Khwajah Nizam al-Din Ahmad, The Tabaqat-i-Akbari: (A History of India from the early Musalman Invasions to the thirty-eight year of the reign of Akbar), vol. 2, trans, Brajendra Nath De. rev. and ed, Baini Prashad, low Price Publications, Delhi, 1992, p, 607.</ref>

In July 1526, Emperor [[Babur]] captured Peshawar.<ref name="Miers">{{cite book |last1=Henry Miers |first1=Elliot |title=The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period |orig-year=1867 |publication-date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-05587-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2AGBNfe8ZQC&q=peshawar&pg=PA25 |date=21 March 2013 |access-date=3 October 2020 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307070321/https://books.google.com/books?id=w2AGBNfe8ZQC&q=peshawar&pg=PA25 |url-status=live }}</ref> During Babur's rule, the city was known as ''Begram'', and he rebuilt the city's fort.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aykroyd |first1=Clarissa |title=Pakistan |date=2005 |publisher=Mason Crest Publishers |isbn=978-1-59084-839-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/pakistan0000aykr}}</ref> Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns.<ref name="bosworth" />

Under the reign of Babur's son, [[Humayun]], direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king, [[Sher Shah Suri]], who began construction of the famous [[Grand Trunk Road]] in the 16th century. Peshawar was an important trading centre on the Grand Trunk Road.<ref name="silk road" /> During Akbar's rule, the name of the city changed from ''Begram'' to ''Peshawar''.<ref name="bosworth" /> In 1586, Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership of [[Pir Roshan|Bayazid Pir Roshan]],<ref name="CUP Archive">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of India, Volume 3 |date=1928 |publisher=CUP Archive}}</ref> founder of the egalitarian [[Roshani movement]], who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals. The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587.<ref name="CUP Archive" />

Peshawar was bestowed with its own set of ''Shalimar Gardens'' during the reign of [[Shah Jahan]],<ref>Ahmad, Hasan Dani (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. {{ISBN|9788120815407}}. Retrieved 29 March 2017</ref> which no longer exist.

[[File:Sunehri maseet da booa.JPG|thumb|Peshawar's Sunehri Mosque dates from the Mughal era.]]
Emperor [[Aurangzeb]]'s governor of Kabul, [[Ali Mardan Khan|Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan]] used Peshawar as his winter capital during the 17th century, and bestowed the city with its famous [[Mohabbat Khan Mosque]] in 1630.<ref name="bosworth" />

[[Yusufzai]] tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667,<ref name="Richards" /> and engaged in pitched-battles with Mughal battalions nearby [[Attock]].<ref name="Richards" /> [[Afridi]] tribes resisted Mughal rule during the Afridi Revolt of the 1670s.<ref name="Richards" /> The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearby [[Khyber Pass]] in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes.<ref name=richards>{{citation |title=The Mughal Empire |chapter=Imperial expansion under Aurangzeb 1658–1869. Testing the limits of the empire: the Northwest. |volume=5 |series=New Cambridge history of India: The Mughals and their contemporaries |first=John F. |last=Richards |author-link=John F. Richards |edition=illustrated, reprint |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=170–171 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC |access-date=24 March 2017 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231220430/http://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC |url-status=live }}</ref> Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674.<ref name="Richards" />

Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son [[Bahadur Shah I]], former governor of Peshawar and Kabul, was selected to be the Mughal Emperor. As Mughal power declined following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire's defenses were weakened.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wynbrandt |first1=James |title=A Brief History of Pakistan |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-6184-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa0000wynb}}</ref>

On 18 November 1738, Peshawar was captured from the Mughal governor Nawab Nasir Khan by the [[Afsharid dynasty|Afsharid]] armies during the [[Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire|Persian invasion of the Mughal Empire]] under [[Nader Shah]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=S.R. |title=Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material, Volume 3 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=9788171568192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4j_VLlGqVSoC&q=peshawar+mughal&pg=PA728 |access-date=24 March 2017 |year=1999 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307070326/https://books.google.com/books?id=4j_VLlGqVSoC&q=peshawar+mughal&pg=PA728 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nadiem |first1=Ihsan H. |title=Peshawar: heritage, history, monuments |date=2007 |publisher=Sang-e-Meel |isbn=9789693519716}}</ref>

==== Durrani Empire ====
[[File:Bala_Hisar_Fort.jpg|thumb|220px|Peshawar's [[Bala Hissar, Peshawar|Bala Hissar]] fort was once the royal residence of the Durrani Afghan kings.]]
In 1747, Peshawar was taken by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], founder of the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YZJcAQAAQBAJ&q=peshawar+capture+durrani+empire&pg=PA204 |title=A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes, Volume 14 |access-date=29 December 2014 |isbn=978-1-4907-1441-7 |last1=Alikuzai |first1=Hamid Wahed |date=October 2013 |publisher=Trafford |archive-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127151423/https://books.google.com/books?id=YZJcAQAAQBAJ&q=peshawar+capture+durrani+empire&pg=PA204 |url-status=live }}</ref> Under the reign of his son [[Timur Shah Durrani|Timur Shah]], the Mughal practice of using Kabul as a summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced,<ref name="bosworth" /><ref name="Hanifi2011">{{cite book |first=Shah |last=Hanifi |title=Connecting Histories in Afghanistan: Market Relations and State Formation on a Colonial Frontier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kh1hpPLSpcEC |access-date=13 December 2012 |date=11 February 2011 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7777-3 |quote=Timur Shah transferred the Durrani capital from Qandahar during the period of 1775 and 1776. Kabul and Peshawar then shared time as the dual capital cities of Durrani, the former during the summer and the latter during the winter season. |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815092453/https://books.google.com/books?id=kh1hpPLSpcEC |url-status=live }}</ref> with the practice maintained until the [[Sikh]] invasion.<ref name="Olaf">Caroe, Olaf (1957) The Pathans.</ref> Peshawar's [[Bala Hissar, Peshawar|Bala Hissar Fort]] served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar, and it was noted to be the main centre of trade between [[Bukhara]] and India by British explorer [[William Moorcroft (explorer)|William Moorcroft]] during the late 1700s.<ref name=hopkins>{{cite book |last1=Hopkins |first1=B. |title=The Making of Modern Afghanistan |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-22876-4}}</ref> Peshawar was at the centre of a productive agricultural region that provided much of north India's dried fruit.<ref name=hopkins />

Timur Shah's grandson, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]], became king, and quickly seized Peshawar from his half-brother, [[Shah Shujah Durrani]].<ref name="UNESCO" /> Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803, and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape.<ref name="UNESCO" /> In 1809, the British sent an emissary to the court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar, marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans.<ref name="UNESCO" /> His half-brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with the ''Barakzai'' Pashtuns, and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until the [[Battle of Nowshera]] in March 1823.<ref name="UNESCO" />

==== Maratha Empire ====
The Capture of Peshawar took place in spring of 1758<ref>{{cite book |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes] |author= Alexander Mikaberidze |date= 22 July 2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C |page= 43 |publisher= Abc-Clio |isbn= 9781598843378 |quote=The Marathas, assisted by Sikhs, defeated the Afghans and captured Attock, Peshwar and Multan in the spring of 1758}}</ref><ref name="isbn9789382573494">{{cite book|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=ngCqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 <!-- -->|page=37|title=Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and His Campaign |isbn=9789382573494 |last1=Sorokhaibam |first1=Jeneet |date=January 2013 |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcEcBQAAQBAJ&q=Attock+and+peshwar&pg=PA82 |title=War in the Eighteenth-Century World |date=7 December 2012 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |isbn=978-0-230-37000-5 |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> when [[Maratha Confederacy]] in alliance with the [[Sikhs]], defeated the [[Durrani Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmU9AAAAMAAJ |page=94 |title=Marathas and Panipat |last1=Gupta |first1=Hari Ram |year=1961 }}</ref><ref name="mehta">{{Cite book|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813|publisher=New Dawn Press, Incorporated|year=2005|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|pages=236, 256, 260}} "The province of Multan and northwest frontier were also overrun by Marathas and the forts of Peshawar and Attock were garrisoned by their troops"</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pletcher|first=Kenneth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsujRFvaHI8C&pg=PA198|title=The History of India|publisher=Britannica Educational Pub.|year=2010|isbn=978-1-61530-122-5|pages=198}}</ref> Before that, the fort of Peshawar was being guarded by Durrani troops under [[Timur Shah Durrani]] and Jahan Khan. When [[Raghunathrao]], [[Malhar Rao Holkar]] and Sikh alliance of [[Charat Singh]] and [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]] left Peshawar, [[Tukoji Rao Holkar]] was appointed as the representative in this area of the sub-continent.<ref name="ReferenceA">Third Battle of Panipat by Abhas Verma {{ISBN|9788180903397}} Bharatiya Kala Prakashan</ref><ref name="mehta" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=S. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4j_VLlGqVSoC&q=extended+their+sway+upto+Multan&pg=PA763 |title=Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material |date=1999 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-7156-817-8 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Sikh Empire ====
[[Ranjit Singh]] invaded Peshawar in 1818, but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals.<ref name="Sikhs">{{cite book |last1=Rai |first1=Jyoti |last2=Singh |first2=Patwant |title=Empire of the Sikhs: The Life and Times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh |date=2008 |publisher=Peter Owen Publishers |isbn=978-0-7206-1371-1}}</ref><ref name="lee">{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Jonathan |title=Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-78914-010-1 |pages=188 |language=English}}</ref> Following the Sikh victory against [[Azim Khan]] at the [[Battle of Nowshera]] in March 1823, Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor.<ref name="lee" /><ref name="Sikhs" /> By 1830, Peshawar's economy was noted by Scottish explorer [[Alexander Burnes]] to have sharply declined,<ref name=hopkins /> with Ranjit Singh's forces having destroyed the city's palace and agricultural fields.<ref name=hopkins />

Much of Peshawar's caravan trade from [[Kabul]] ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces,<ref name=hopkins /> as well as a punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh's forces.<ref name=hopkins /> Singh's government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute,<ref name=hopkins /> while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India.<ref name=hopkins /> Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenary [[Paolo Avitabile]] as administrator of Peshawar, who is remembered for having unleashed a reign of terror. His time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets". The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors.<ref name="heritage.gov.pk">{{cite web |title=History of Peshawar |url=http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/historic_peshawar.htm |publisher=National Fund for Cultural Heritage |access-date=13 December 2012 |first=Asghar |last=Javed |year=1999–2004 |archive-date=27 February 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040227044829/http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/historic_peshawar.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Sikh Empire formally [[Capture of Peshawar (1834)|annexed Peshawar in 1834]] following advances from the armies of [[Hari Singh Nalwa]]<ref name="Sikhs" />—bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire's ''Lahore Durbar''.<ref name="Sikhs" /> An 1835 attempt by [[Dost Mohammad Khan|Dost Muhammad Khan]] to re-occupy the city was unsuccessful after being unable to breach the Peshawar fort's defenses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Jonathan |title=Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-78914-010-1 |pages=208 |language=English}}</ref> Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule. The city's only remaining [[Gurdwara]]s were built by [[Hari Singh Nalwa]] to accommodate the newly settled Sikhs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gurudwara Bhai Joga Singh at Peshawar |url=http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/gurudwaras-in-pakistan/gurudwara-bhai-joga-singh-at-peshawar |work=All About Sikhs – your Gateway to Sikhism |publisher=Gateway to Sikhism |access-date=13 December 2012 |first=Iqbal |last=Qaiser |year=2012 |archive-date=25 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425220253/http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/gurudwaras-in-pakistan/gurudwara-bhai-joga-singh-at-peshawar |url-status=live }}</ref> The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite book |last1=Dani |first1=Ahmad Hasan |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |date=2003 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=9789231038761}}</ref>

==== British Raj ====
[[File:Islamia College Peshawar 2.jpg|thumb|The British-era [[Islamia College University|Islamia College]] was built in an [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture|Indo-Saracenic Revival]] style.]]
[[File:Sethi House 1.jpg|thumb|Built for wealthy local merchants in a Central Asian architectural style, the [[Sethi Mohallah]] features several homes dating from the British era.]]
Following the defeat of the Sikhs in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1845–46 and the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1849, some of their territories were captured by the British [[East India Company]]. The British re-established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule.<ref name=hopkins /> During the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Rebellion of 1857]], the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed;<ref name=":4" /> the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident.<ref name=":4">[[Charles Allen (writer)|Charles Allen]], ''Soldier Sahibs'', p.276</ref>

The British laid out the vast [[Peshawar Cantonment]] to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters.<ref name="Schofield, Victoria 2003 page 47">Schofield, Victoria, "Afghan Frontier: Feuding and Fighting in Central Asia", London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks (2003), page 47</ref> Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by the Sikhs.<ref name="heritage.gov.pk" /> British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by Sir [[Mortimer Durand]], foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaboratively [[Durand Line|demarcated the border]] between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan.

The British built [[Cunningham clock tower]] in celebration of the [[Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria]], and in 1906 built the Victoria Hall (now home of the [[Peshawar Museum]]) in memory of [[Queen Victoria]].<ref name="heritage.gov.pk" /> The British introduced Western-style education into Peshawar with the establishment of [[Edwardes College]] and [[Islamia College University|Islamia College]] in 1901 and 1913, along with several schools run by the [[Anglican Church]].<ref name="heritage.gov.pk" /> For better administration of the region, Peshawar and the adjoining districts were separated from the Punjab Province in 1901,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nKdraLI-c0wC&pg=PA15 |page=15 | title=Changes in the Socio-economic Structures in Rural North-West Pakistan | isbn=978-3-8175-0408-4 | last1=Khan | first1=Mohammad Asif | year=2007 |publisher=Mohammad Asif Khan }}</ref> The [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–55)|North-West Frontier Province]] was separated from Punjab Province in 1901, after which Peshawar became capital of the new province.<ref name="bosworth" />

[[Communal riots]] broke out in the old city of Peshawar during the spring of 1910, when the annual [[Hinduism|Hindu]] festival of [[Holi]] coincided with [[Barawafat]], the annual [[Islam|Muslim]] day of mourning, resulting in a considerable loss of life along with hundreds of [[looted]] businesses and injuries.{{efn|name=1921CensusQuote|"The date of the Hindu festival of Holi coincided with Barawafat, the Musalman day of mourning, in 1910, which led to a very serious riot between the Hindus and Musalmans of the Peshawar City resulting in a considerable loss of life. There was a wholescale plunder of Hindu houses and shops."<ref name="1921Census">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430163|jstor=saoa.crl.25430163 |access-date=10 February 2023|title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 14, North-west Frontier Province : Part I, Report; part II, Tables |year=1922 }}</ref>{{rp|92–93}}}}<ref name="1910Riots">Rehman, Noor & Khan, Aman Ullah. 2020. "[http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/HistoryPStudies/PDF_Files/2_v33_2_2020.pdf "Maro Hindu Ko" (Kill the Hindus): Communal Violence in Peshawar City: A Historical Perspective]" In ''[http://pu.edu.pk/home/journal/40 Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society]''. Volume: 33, No. 02, July – December 2020</ref> A month prior, in February 1910, prominent community religious leaders met with officials and agreed that Holi would be solely celebrated in predominantly Hindu neighbourhoods of the city, notably in Andar Shehr and Karim Pura.{{efn|"On 22nd February 1910, a meeting of leading Muslims and Hindu leaders was called by deputy commissioner of Peshawar at the Municipal Hall in which arrangements regarding the upcoming festivals were discussed and a committee was established consisting of prominent leaders from both sides. It was decided in the meeting that the Holi should be celebrated quietly until the 25th March. There should be only two processions, namely from the Hindu quarter of Andar Shahr to that of Karimpura and vice-versa. The Muslim of the city should not join the procession and the troops should celebrate Holi in their lines and some leading men from both sides will supervise the arrangement at Hasting Memorial and other at Clock Tower."<ref name="1910Riots" />{{rp|23–24}}}}  On 21 March 1910, however, rumors of [[musician]]s from [[Amritsar]] and a dancing boy from [[Haripur, Pakistan|Haripur]] being brought into the city for Holi celebrations, led to a group of individuals who were marking Barawafat into forming a mob with the intention of stopping the [[procession]].{{efn|On 21 March the Deputy Commissioner was informed by deputy superintendent of police Zain ul Abidin that the situation in the city is not good as Hindu brought some musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Hari Pur and they are intending to lead the procession on an unauthorized route. The superintendent of police suggested the deputy commissioner that the Holi should not be allowed as the situations going to create clash. Mr. Blackway sent some Hindu leader to enquire the situation. These Hindu gentlemen assured the deputy commissioner that the situation is friendly and nothing bad is going to be happened. There is no musician with the Holi and it would follow the old route. At the same time some Muslim leaders reported to the deputy commissioner about the Muslim mob who intended to stop the Holi procession. They also suggested that Holi procession should be stopped to avoid an expected clash between the two communities. However, after the surety of the Hindu leaders that there are no musicians and dancing boys and that the procession is not going on an unauthorized route the deputy commissioner was stuck to follow his old plan. This was the point which was misunderstood and created communal violence in the city.<ref name="1910Riots" />{{rp|24}}}} Despite Muslim and Hindu [[community leader]]s calling for calm, both parties ultimately clashed at the Asamai Gate, when the Holi procession was ''en route'' to [[Dargah Pir Ratan Nath Jee]], with a Hindu procession member stabbing a Muslim individual in the mob.{{efn|Around 8 pm when the Holi procession at Asa Mai gate was about to depart on the route to Pir Rathan Nath Dharamshala sub inspector Kanhya Lal who was posted at Chita Khuo informed the police head quarter that a mob of Muslim also assembled to stop it and the two mobs started abusing each other. Leaders from both sides tried to control the situation but the people from both sides refused to pay any heed to their leaders. Meanwhile, a Hindu Mahr Singh stabbed a Muslim with knife. Mahr Singh was chased by the mob and captured him at Bara Bazar. At the same time two Muslims Jani and Ahmad were killed by Hindu with knives. Police report for 21 March 1911, provides that two Muslim were killed and three wounded while from Hindu side two people were killed and eleven were wounded and eleven shops were broken.<ref name="1910Riots" />{{rp|24}}}} [[Riot]]s ensued for the following three days, involved individuals from outlying [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas|tribal regions]] who had entered the city, with a mob at Bara Bazar allegedly chanting "''Maro Hindu Ko''" (Kill the Hindus).{{efn|When the funeral party was ousted from the city a riffraff of Muslim consisting of people from trans-border areas and Afghanistan remained in the city that started plundering and broke 285 shops. A violent clash was started in which two Hindus and one Muslim was killed... The next day on 23 March the looting of shops started again. The first case was reported in Ramdas Bazar where the Muslim despite the Military and Police patrolling looted the Hindu shops. A Hindu, reader of Nawab of Landi fired and wounded two Muslim. The local Hindu during investigation denied the fact but Military intelligence reported that he fired and wounded two people. He was arrested and sent on trial under India Penal Code. Two Hindu were killed at Ram Das Bazar. It was also reported that in Mewa Mandi a mob of Afridi and Mohmand tribes started plundering and looted many shops. People from tribal areas were also involved in this looting. 11 shops were broken in Ram Das Bazar that day... The official records about the events of the day had self-contradictory statements. The starting paragraphs of police and commissioner reports claims that everything was good at the start of the day but after a while the situation was out of control in the whole city. For instance, police reports provides that around 10:00 am, in Karimpura a police constable Chettan Ram was struck on head and the mob at Bara Bazar started the slogan "Maro Hindu Ko".<ref name="1910Riots" />{{rp|25}}}} Estimates detail the riots resulted in a total of 451 damaged shops and homes, primarily belonging to members of the Hindu community, while at least 4 Muslims and 6 Hindus were killed, alongside hundreds of injuries.<ref name="1910Riots" />

[[File:Edwardes College Side View.JPG|thumb|[[Edwardes College]] was built during the British-era, and is now one of Peshawar's most prestigious educational institutions.]]
Peshawar emerged as a centre for both [[Hindkowans|Hindkowan]] and [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] intellectuals during the British era. Hindko speakers, also referred to as ''xāryān'' ("city dwellers" in Pashto), were responsible for the dominant culture for most of the time that Peshawar was under British rule.<ref>The Frontier Town of Peshawar. A Brief History by Sayed Amjad Hussain.</ref> Peshawar was also home to a non-violent resistance movement led by [[Ghaffar Khan]], a disciple of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. In April 1930, Khan, leading a large group of his followers, protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government; hundreds were killed when a detachment of the [[British Indian Army]] [[Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre|opened fire on the demonstrators]].<ref>{{cite web |title=PESHAWAR: Qissa Khwani martyrs remembered |url=http://archives.dawn.com/2008/04/24/local36.htm |work=DAWN The Internet Edition |publisher=DAWN Media Group |access-date=13 December 2012 |author=APP |date=24 April 2008 |archive-date=12 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312042251/http://archives.dawn.com/2008/04/24/local36.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>