Editing Pedro II of Brazil (section)

== Paraguayan War ==
{{main|Pedro II of Brazil in the Paraguayan War}}
{{See also|Uruguayan War|Paraguayan War}}

=== First Fatherland Volunteer ===
{{main|Fatherland Volunteers}}
[[File:Pedro II 1865 01.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1|alt=Photograph of a seated, bearded man dressed in a dark suit and vest|Pedro&nbsp;II at age 39, 1865]]
As war with the British Empire threatened, Brazil had to turn its attention to its southern frontiers. Another civil war had begun in [[Uruguay]] as its political parties turned against each other.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=108}},
* {{harvnb|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=219}},
* {{harvnb|Barman|1999|p=197}}.</ref> The internal conflict led to the murder of Brazilians and looting of their property in Uruguay.{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=220}} Brazil's government decided to intervene, fearful of giving any impression of weakness in the face of conflict with the British.{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=107}} A Brazilian army invaded Uruguay in December 1864, beginning the brief [[Uruguayan War]], which ended in February 1865.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=109}},
* {{harvnb|Lira 1977, Vol 1|pp=224–225}},
* {{harvnb|Barman|1999|p=198}}.</ref> Meanwhile, the president of Paraguay, [[Francisco Solano López]], took advantage of the situation to establish his country as a regional power. The [[Paraguayan Army]] invaded the Brazilian province of [[Mato Grosso]] (the area known after 1977 as the state of [[Mato Grosso do Sul]]), triggering the [[Paraguayan War]]. Four months later, Paraguayan troops invaded [[Argentina|Argentine]] territory as a prelude to an attack on [[Rio Grande do Sul]].<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=109}},
* {{harvnb|Schwarcz|1998|p=299}},
* {{harvnb|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=227}}.</ref>

Aware of the anarchy in Rio Grande do Sul and the incapacity and incompetence of its military chiefs to resist the Paraguayan army, Pedro&nbsp;II decided to go to the front in person.{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=228}} Upon receiving objections from the cabinet, the General Assembly and the [[Privy council|Council of State]], Pedro&nbsp;II pronounced: "If they can prevent me from going as an Emperor, they cannot prevent me from abdicating and going as a Fatherland Volunteer"—an allusion to those Brazilians who volunteered to go to war and became known throughout the nation as the "Fatherland Volunteers".<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=228}},
* {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|p=734}},
* {{harvnb|Olivieri|1999|p=32}},
* {{harvnb|Barman|1999|p=202}}.</ref> The monarch himself was popularly called the "number-one volunteer".{{sfn|Vainfas|2002|p=200}}{{sfn|Schwarcz|1998|p=300}} Given permission to leave, Pedro&nbsp;II disembarked in Rio Grande do Sul in July and proceeded from there by land.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=229}},
* {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|pp=735–736}},
* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=111}}.</ref> He travelled overland by horse and wagon, sleeping at night in a campaign tent.{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=112}} In September, Pedro&nbsp;II arrived in [[Uruguaiana]], a Brazilian town occupied by a besieged Paraguayan army.{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=114}}{{sfn|Calmon|1975|p=745}}

The Emperor rode within rifle-shot of Uruguaiana, but the Paraguayans did not attack him.{{sfn|Calmon|1975|p=744}} To avoid further bloodshed, he offered terms of surrender to the Paraguayan commander, who accepted.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=114}},
* {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|p=748}},
* {{harvnb|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=237}}.</ref> Pedro&nbsp;II's coordination of the military operations and his personal example played a decisive role in successfully repulsing the Paraguayan invasion of Brazilian territory.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=205}} Before returning to Rio de Janeiro, he received the British diplomatic envoy [[Edward Thornton (diplomat)|Edward Thornton]], who apologized on behalf of [[Queen Victoria]] and the British Government for the crisis between the empires.{{sfn|Calmon|1975|p=748}}{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=237}} The Emperor regarded this diplomatic victory over the most powerful nation of the world as sufficient and renewed friendly relations.{{sfn|Lira 1977, Vol 1|p=237}}

=== Total victory and its heavy costs ===
[[File:Pedro II Admiral Brazil 1870.jpg|thumb|upright=1|alt=Photograph of a bearded man seated casually with crossed legs and wearing a military tunic with fringed epaulettes|Dressed in an admiral's uniform at age 44, 1870—the war years had prematurely aged the Emperor{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=124}}{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=247}}]]
Against all expectations, the war continued for five years. During this period, Pedro&nbsp;II's time and energy were devoted to the war effort.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=193}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=110}} He tirelessly worked to raise and equip troops to reinforce the front lines and to push forward the fitting of new warships for the navy.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=202}} The rape of women, widespread violence against civilians, ransacking and destruction of properties that had occurred during Paraguay's invasion of Brazilian territory had made a deep impression on him.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=206}} He warned the Countess of Barral in November 1866 that "the war should be concluded as honor demands, cost what it cost."{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=230}} "Difficulties, setbacks, and [[war-weariness]] had no effect on his quiet resolve", said Barman. Mounting casualties did not distract him from advancing what he saw as Brazil's righteous cause, and he stood prepared to personally sacrifice his own throne to gain an honorable outcome.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=230}} Writing in his journal a few years previously Pedro&nbsp;II remarked: "What sort of fear could I have? That they take the government from me? Many better kings than I have lost it, and to me it is no more than the weight of a cross which it is my duty to carry."{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=169}}

At the same time, Pedro&nbsp;II worked to prevent quarrels between the national political parties from impairing the military response.{{sfn|Barman|1999|pp=219–224}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|pp=116–118}} The Emperor prevailed over a [[1868 Brazilian political crisis|serious political crisis in July 1868]] resulting from a quarrel between the cabinet and [[Luís Alves de Lima e Silva]] (then-Marques and later Duke of Caxias), the commander-in-chief of the Brazilian forces in Paraguay. Caxias was also a politician and was a member of the opposing party to the ministry. The Emperor sided with him, leading to the cabinet's resignation. As Pedro&nbsp;II maneuvered to bring about a victorious outcome in the conflict with Paraguay, he threw his support behind the political parties and factions that seemed to be most useful in the effort. The reputation of the monarchy was harmed and its trusted position as an impartial mediator was severely impacted in the long term. He was unconcerned for his personal position, and regardless of the impact upon the imperial system, he determined to put the national interest ahead of any potential harm caused by such expediencies.{{sfn|Barman|1999|pp=224–225}}

His refusal to accept anything short of total victory was pivotal in the outcome.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=206}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=114–115}} His tenacity was well-paid with the news that López had died in battle on 1 March 1870, bringing the war to a close.{{sfn|Barman|1999|pp=229–230}}{{sfn|Carvalho|2007|p=121}} Pedro&nbsp;II turned down the General Assembly's suggestion to erect an [[equestrian statue]] of him to commemorate the victory and chose instead to use the money to build elementary schools.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|p=855}},
* {{harvnb|Doratioto|2002|p=455}},
* {{harvnb|Carvalho|2007|p=122}},
* {{harvnb|Barman|1999|p=230}}.</ref>