Editing Oil spill (section)

==Cleanup and recovery==
<!--IMAGE-->[[File:C-130 support oil spill cleanup.jpg|thumb|left|A U.S. Air Force Reserve plane sprays [[Corexit]] dispersant over the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill|''Deepwater Horizon'' oil spill]] in the Gulf of Mexico.]]
<!--IMAGE-->[[File:Exxon Valdez Cleanup.jpg|thumb|left|Clean-up efforts after the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill]].]]
<!--IMAGE-->[[File:Harbour Buster high-speed oil containment system.jpg|thumb|left|A US Navy oil spill response team drills with a "Harbour Buster high-speed oil containment system".]]

Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.<ref name="common dreams 1" />  Physical cleanups of oil spills are also very expensive.  Until the 1960s, the best method for remediation consisted of putting [[straw]] on the spill and retrieving the oil-soaked straw manually.<ref name=":9">{{Cite magazine |last=Staff |date=8 October 2022 |title=Oil on the waters |department=Notebook—50 years ago |magazine=[[Science News]] |type=Paper |volume=202 |issue=7 |page=4}}</ref>  Chemical remediation is the norm as of the early 21st century, using compounds that can herd and thicken oil for physical recovery, disperse oil in the water, or facilitate burning the oil off.<ref name=":9" />  The future of oil cleanup technology is likely the use of microorganisms such as [[Fusobacteriota]] (formerly Fusobacteria), species demonstrate potential for future oil spill cleanup because of their ability to colonize and degrade oil slicks on the sea surface.<ref name=":9" /><ref name="pmid27681918">{{cite journal|vauthors=Gutierrez T, Berry D, Teske A, Aitken MD |title=Enrichment of Fusobacteria in Sea Surface Oil Slicks from the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill. |journal=Microorganisms |year=2016 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=24 |pmid=27681918 |doi=10.3390/microorganisms4030024 |pmc=5039584|doi-access=free }}</ref>

There are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria. [[Sulfate-reducing bacteria]] (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria are [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]], while general aerobic bacteria (GAB) are [[Aerobic organism|aerobic]]. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain. The chemicals from the oil which dissolve in water, and hence are available to bacteria, are those in the [[water associated fraction]] of the oil. Oil Spill Eater II is a highly-used first response tool with over 89,000 clean ups permanently removing up to 99% of the oil from large spills over 120,000 gallons. OSE II was used on the Exxon Valdez spill, as well as the BP Macondo spill in the Gulf of Mexico. OSE II has been successfully used Globally, since 1989. OSE II does not have the limitations of other oil spill products and processes.
{{see also|Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X Challenge}}
Methods for cleaning up include:<ref>[http://ip.com/pq-oil_spill_cleanup.html Oil spill cleanup technology] Patents and patent applications {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110174806/http://ip.com/pq-oil_spill_cleanup.html |date=November 10, 2011}}</ref>
* [[Bioremediation of oil spills|Bioremediation]]: use of [[microorganism]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/540.html |title=The Environmental Literacy Council – Oil Spills |publisher=Enviroliteracy.org |date=2008-06-25 |access-date=2010-06-16}}</ref> or [[biological agents]]<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.epa.gov/osweroe1/content/learning/bioagnts.htm | title=Biological Agents – Emergency Management – US EPA}}</ref> to break down or remove oil; such as ''[[Alcanivorax]]'' bacteria<ref name=kasai>{{cite journal | last1 = Kasai | first1 = Y |display-authors=etal |year = 2002 | title = Predominant Growth of Alcanivorax Strains in Oil-contaminated and Nutrient-supplemented Sea Water | journal = Environmental Microbiology | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 141–47 | doi = 10.1046/j.1462-2920.2002.00275.x| pmid = 12000314 | bibcode = 2002EnvMi...4..141K }}</ref> or ''[[Methylocella silvestris]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.oilandgastechnology.net/health-safety-environment-news/oil-natural-gas-eating-bacteria-clear-spills | title=Oil and natural gas eating bacteria to clear-up spills | work=www.oilandgastechnology.net | date=April 30, 2014 | access-date=May 14, 2014 | archive-date=May 14, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514200149/http://www.oilandgastechnology.net/health-safety-environment-news/oil-natural-gas-eating-bacteria-clear-spills | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Bioremediation Accelerator: a binder molecule that moves hydrocarbons out of water and into gels, when combined with nutrients, encourages natural bioremediation. Oleophilic, hydrophobic chemical, containing no bacteria, which chemically and physically bonds to both soluble and insoluble hydrocarbons. The accelerator acts as a herding agent in water and on the surface, floating molecules such as phenol and [[BTEX]] to the surface of the water, forming gel-like agglomerations. Undetectable levels of hydrocarbons can be obtained in produced water and manageable water columns. By overspraying sheen with bioremediation accelerator, sheen is eliminated within minutes. Whether applied on land or on water, the nutrient-rich emulsion creates a bloom of local, indigenous, pre-existing, hydrocarbon-consuming bacteria. Those specific bacteria break down the hydrocarbons into water and carbon dioxide, with EPA tests showing 98% of alkanes biodegraded in 28 days; and aromatics being biodegraded 200 times faster than in nature they also sometimes use the hydrofireboom to clean the oil up by taking it away from most of the oil and burning it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/emergencies/content/ncp/products/s200.htm |title=S-200 &#124; NCP Product Schedule &#124; Emergency Management &#124; US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |access-date=2010-06-16}}</ref>
<!-- Unsourced addition could possibly be integrated into or added to above paragraph: "Introduce biological agents to the spill to hasten biodegradation. Most of the components of oil washed up along a shoreline can be broken down by bacteria and other microorganisms into harmless substances such as fatty acids and carbon dioxide. This action is called biodegradation. The natural process can be speeded up by the addition of fertilizing nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous, which stimulate growth of the microorganisms concerned. However the effectiveness of this technique depends on factors such as whether the ground treated has sand or pebbles and whether the fertilizer is water soluble or applied in pellet or liquid form." -->
* Controlled [[burning]] can effectively reduce the amount of oil in water, if done properly.<ref name="oil spill"/> But it can only be done in low [[wind]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mullin|first1=Joseph V|last2=Champ|first2=Michael A|date=2003-08-01|title=Introduction/Overview to in Situ Burning of Oil Spills|journal=Spill Science & Technology Bulletin|series=In-Situ Burning of Spilled Oil|volume=8|issue=4|pages=323–330|doi=10.1016/S1353-2561(03)00076-8|bibcode=2003SSTB....8..323M }}</ref> and can cause [[air pollution]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215471/oil_spills.htm |title=Oil Spills |publisher=Library.thinkquest.org |access-date=2012-08-27 |archive-date=2007-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070124111105/http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215471/oil_spills.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Close-up of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela.jpg|thumb|Oil slicks on [[Lake Maracaibo]]]]
[[File:PrestigeVolunteersInGaliciaCoast.jpg|thumb|Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the [[Prestige oil spill]]]]
* [[Dispersant]]s can be used to dissipate [[dispersants#Oil spill|oil slick]]s.<ref name="itopf-dispersants">{{cite web|url=http://www.itopf.com/spill-response/clean-up-and-response/dispersants/|publisher=International Tanker Operators Pollution Federation Limited|title=Spill Response – Dispersants|access-date=2010-05-03|archive-date=2013-11-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114115318/http://www.itopf.com/spill-response/clean-up-and-response/dispersants/|url-status=dead}}</ref> A dispersant is either a non-surface active [[polymer]] or a [[surfactant|surface-active substance]] added to a [[Suspension (chemistry)|suspension]], usually a [[colloid]], to improve the separation of [[wiktionary:Particles|particles]] and to prevent [[settling]] or [[:wikt:clumping|clumping]]. They may rapidly [[Dispersion (chemistry)|disperse]] large amounts of certain oil types from the [[sea surface]] by transferring it into the [[water column]]. They will cause the oil slick to break up and form water-soluble [[micelle]]s that are rapidly [[:wikt:dilute|dilute]]d. The oil is then effectively spread throughout a larger volume of water than the surface from where the oil was dispersed. They can also delay the formation of persistent [[oil-in-water emulsion]]s. However, laboratory experiments showed that dispersants increased toxic hydrocarbon levels in fish by a factor of up to 100 and may kill fish eggs.<ref name="itopf-fisheggs">{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna30158418|publisher= journal Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|title=Spill Response – Dispersants Kill Fish Eggs|date= 10 April 2009|access-date=2010-05-21}}</ref> Dispersed oil droplets infiltrate into deeper water and can lethally contaminate [[coral]]. Research indicates that some dispersants are toxic to corals.<ref name="Science News">{{cite journal | author = Barry Carolyn | year = 2007 | title = Slick Death: Oil-spill treatment kills coral | url = http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20070804/fob1.asp | journal = Science News | volume = 172 | issue = 5 | page = 67 | doi = 10.1002/scin.2007.5591720502 | access-date = 2007-08-31 | archive-date = 2008-03-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080302160625/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20070804/fob1.asp | url-status = dead }}</ref> A 2012 study found that [[Corexit]] dispersant had increased the toxicity of oil by up to 52 times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna50032789|title=Dispersant makes oil 52 times more toxic – Technology & science – Science – LiveScience – NBC News|work=NBC News|date=30 November 2012 |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> In 2019, the U.S. National Academies released a report analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of several response methods and tools.<ref>{{Cite book|last=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25161|title=The Use of Dispersants in Marine Oil Spill Response|year=2019|isbn=978-0-309-47818-2|language=en|doi=10.17226/25161|pmid=32379406|s2cid=133873607}}</ref>
<!-- Unsourced addition could possibly be integrated into or added to above paragraph: "Use dispersants to break up the oil and speed its natural biodegradation. Dispersants act by reducing the surface tension that stops oil and water from mixing. Small droplets of oil are then formed, which helps promote rapid dilution of the oil by water movements. The formation of droplets also increases the oil surface area, thus increasing the exposure to natural evaporation and bacterial action. Dispersants are most effective when used within an hour or two of the initial spill. However, they are not appropriate for all oils and all locations. Successful dispersion of oil through the water column can affect marine organisms like deep-water corals and sea grass. It can also cause oil to be temporarily accumulated by subtidal seafood. Decisions on whether or not to use dispersants to combat an oil spill must be made in each individual case. The decision will take into account the time since the spill, the weather conditions, the particular environment involved, and the type of oil that has been spilt." -->
* Watch and wait: in some cases, natural attenuation of oil may be most appropriate, due to the invasive nature of facilitated methods of remediation, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pezeshki | first1 = S. R. | last2 = Hester | first2 = M. W. | last3 = Lin | first3 = Q. | last4 = Nyman | first4 = J. A. | year = 2000 | title = The effects of oil spill clean-up on dominant US Gulf coast marsh macrophytes: a review | journal = Environmental Pollution | volume = 108 | issue = 2| pages = 129–139 | doi=10.1016/s0269-7491(99)00244-4| pmid = 15092943 }}</ref>
* [[Dredging]]: for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water.
* [[Skimmer (machine)|Skimming]]: Requires calm waters at all times during the process.
* Solidifying: Solidifiers are composed of tiny, floating, [[dry ice]] pellets,<ref>"A slick idea" by Cara Murphy
Beach Reporter Manhattan Beach section ll/14/1992</ref><ref>"Zapping Oil Spills
with Dry Ice and Ingenuity" by Gordon Dillow ''Los Angeles Times'' South Bay
section page 1 2/24/1994</ref><ref>If only they'd tried the chilled-soup
solution in Alaska" by John Bogert Daily Breeze (Torrance CA) local section
page B1 2/17/1994</ref> and [[hydrophobic]] [[polymers]] that both [[Adsorption|adsorb]] and [[Absorption (chemistry)|absorb]]. They clean up oil spills by changing the physical state of spilled oil from liquid to a solid, semi-solid or a rubber-like material that floats on water.<ref name="Sarbatly R. 2016 8–16"/> Solidifiers are [[insoluble]] in water, therefore the removal of the solidified oil is easy and the oil will not leach out. Solidifiers have been proven to be relatively non-toxic to aquatic and wildlife and have been proven to suppress harmful vapors commonly associated with hydrocarbons such as [[benzene]], [[xylene]] and [[naphtha]]. The reaction time for solidification of oil is controlled by the surface area or size of the polymer or dry pellets as well as the viscosity and thickness of the oil layer. Some solidifier product manufacturers claim the solidified oil can be thawed and used if frozen with dry ice or disposed of in landfills, recycled as an additive in asphalt or rubber products, or burned as a low ash fuel. A solidifier called C.I.Agent (manufactured by [[C.I.Agent Solutions]] of [[Louisville, Kentucky]]) is being used by [[BP]] in granular form, as well as in Marine and Sheen Booms at [[Dauphin Island, Alabama|Dauphin Island]] and [[Fort Morgan, Alabama]], to aid in the [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]] cleanup.
* Vacuum and [[centrifuge]]: oil can be sucked up along with the water, and then a centrifuge can be used to separate the oil from the water – allowing a tanker to be filled with near pure oil. Usually, the water is returned to the sea, making the process more efficient, but allowing small amounts of oil to go back as well. This issue has hampered the use of centrifuges due to a United States regulation limiting the amount of oil in water returned to the sea.<ref name=NYTimes20100624>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/25/us/25clean.html |title=Advances in Oil Spill Cleanup Lag Since Valdez |newspaper=New York Times |first=Henry |last=Fountain |date=2010-06-24 |access-date=2010-07-05}}</ref>
* Beach Raking: coagulated oil that is left on the beach can be picked up by machinery.

[[File:Valdez Trash Pile.jpg|thumb|Bags of oily waste from the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill]]]]
Equipment used includes:<ref name="oil spill">{{cite web |title=Emergency Response: Responding to Oil Spills |work=Office of Response and Restoration |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |date=2007-06-20 |url=http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/training-and-education/education-students-and-teachers/how-do-spills-happen.html}}</ref>
* [[Boom (containment)|Booms]]: large floating barriers that round up oil and lift the oil off the water
* [[Skimmer (machine)|Skimmers]]: skim the oil
* Sorbents: large absorbents that absorb oil and adsorb small droplets <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cherukupally | first1 = P. | last2 = Sun | first2 = W. | last3 = Wong | first3 = A. P. Y. | last4 = Williams | first4 = D. R. | last5 = Ozin | first5 = G. A. | last6 = Bilton | first6 = A. M. | last7 = Park | first7 = C. B. |year = 2019 | title = Surface-engineered sponges for recovery of crude oil microdroplets from wastewater | journal = Nature Sustainability | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 136–143 | doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0446-4| bibcode = 2019NatSu...3..136C | s2cid = 209381281 }}</ref> 
* Chemical and biological agents: helps to break down the oil
* Vacuums: remove oil from beaches and water surface
* [[Shovel]]s and other road equipment: typically used to clean up oil on beaches

===Prevention===
{{Further|Offshore oil spill prevention and response}}
* Secondary containment – methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into the environment.
* Oil Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) program by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]].
* Double-hulling – build [[double hull]]s into vessels, which reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding. Existing single-hull vessels can also be rebuilt to have a double hull.
* Thick-hulled railroad transport tanks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2013/07/09/quebec-tragedy-unlikely-slow-oil-shipments-via-rail/KGKrxeEe84Rixz3R47DFvJ/story.html|title=Quebec tragedy unlikely to slow oil shipments via rail|work=BostonGlobe.com|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref>

Spill response procedures should include elements such as; 
* A listing of appropriate protective clothing, safety equipment, and cleanup materials required for spill cleanup (gloves, respirators, etc.) and an explanation of their proper use; 
* Appropriate evacuation zones and procedures; 
* Availability of fire suppression equipment; 
* Disposal containers for spill cleanup materials; and 
* The first aid procedures that might be required.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chemstore.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Guide-for-Chemical-Spill-Response-Planning1.pdf |title=Oil Spill Response Procedure |publisher=Chemstore UK |access-date=2014-02-25}}</ref>

===Research===
* Adaptation of the oil bee's, e.g. ''[[Macropis|Macropis fulvipes']]'', mechanism for harvesting flower oils has led to the [[Biomimetics|biomimetic]] development of an additional oil spill recovery method. Oil bees have oleophilic properties in their hair-like protrusions that collect and store oil. This technique has been applied to textiles that can be used to remove oil from sea water.<ref name="Comanns2">{{cite journal |last1=Comanns |first1=Philipp |title=Passive water collection with the integument: mechanisms and their biomimetic potential |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |date=May 2018 |volume=221 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jeb.153130|pmid=29789349 |s2cid=46893569 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018JExpB.221B3130C }}</ref>