Editing Nihilism (section)

== Other forms ==
[[File:Marcel Duchamp, 1917, Fountain, photograph by Alfred Stieglitz.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Black-and-white photo of a porcelain urinal signed "R. Mutt"|[[Dadaism]] expresses nihilistic themes in art by challenging artistic standards, for example, by presenting [[Fountain (Duchamp)|a readymade urinal]] at an art exhibition.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stewart|2023|pp=i, 18}} | {{harvnb|Manschreck|1976|pp=89–90}} | {{harvnb|Hopkins|2004|pp=14, 110, 154}} }}</ref>]]
[[File:Edvard Munch - The Scream - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Oil painting of a person screaming against the backdrop of an orange sky|[[Edvard Munch]]'s painting ''[[The Scream]]'' is sometimes associated with nihilism due to its theme of [[Existentialism#Angst and dread|existential terror]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|2024|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FG4iEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT144 § 15. Thinking without Foundations]}} | {{harvnb|Dowdall|2024|p=83}} }}</ref>]]
In addition to the main nihilistic theories discussed in ethics, value theory, epistemology, and metaphysics, other types of nihilism are considered in the academic discourse, covering diverse fields, including [[literature]], [[art]], culture, politics, and other social phenomena.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crosby|1988|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VnPgFiW0CIC&pg=PA9 9–11]}} | {{harvnb|Gemes|Sykes|2013|pp=671–672}} | {{harvnb|Stewart|2023|pp=i, 18}} | {{harvnb|Walicki|2002}} }}</ref> Various literary works portray characters or attitudes that reject established norms, exhibit disillusionment with life, or struggle with existential despair. Bazarov, the protagonist of [[Ivan Turgenev]]'s novel ''[[Fathers and Sons (novel)|Fathers and Sons]]'', is an early and influential example. Driven by a deep distrust of established authorities, Bazarov follows a cold scientific rationalism. He openly expresses his hate toward conventional beliefs, societal norms, and [[sentimentality]], aiming to dismantle them without a vision of what should replace them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gillespie|1996|pp=xix, 145–148}} | {{harvnb|Manschreck|1976|pp=85–86}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|loc=§ 1. Origins}} }}</ref> Many of [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]'s works explore the problem of nihilism, particularly the idea that without God, there is no moral basis for right or wrong.<ref>{{harvnb|Stewart|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oImzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix, 195]}}</ref> For example, his novel ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' examines the tensions between faith, free will, and nihilism through the perspectives of the protagonists.<ref>{{harvnb|Stepenberg|2019|pp=xi–xv, 115–116}}</ref> Nothingness is a central concern for many characters in the works of [[Samuel Beckett]], either as the object of desire or fear.<ref>{{harvnb|Weller|2008|pp=321–322}}</ref> Nihilist themes are also present in the literary works of [[Franz Kafka]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], and [[Albert Camus]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gillespie|1996|pp=164, 178}} | {{harvnb|Manschreck|1976|pp=86–88, 90–93}} | {{harvnb|Gemes|Sykes|2013|pp=671–672}} }}</ref>

In the field of art, [[Dadaism]] emerged during the [[First World War]] as a nihilistic rejection of established moral, societal, and [[Beauty|artistic standards]]. Dadaists embraced chaos, spontaneity, and irrationality, infusing their art with irreverence, nonsense, and [[humor]] to provoke and challenge traditional [[Philosophy of art|conceptions of art]]. For example, [[Marcel Duchamp]] presented [[Fountain (Duchamp)|a readymade urinal]] at an [[art exhibition]], which became one of the most iconic pieces of the movement.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stewart|2023|pp=i, 18}} | {{harvnb|Manschreck|1976|pp=89–90}} | {{harvnb|Hopkins|2004|pp=14, 110, 154}} }}</ref> In cinema, the movie ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' suggests a form of epistemic nihilism, showcasing moral ambiguity and the impossibility of arriving at an objective assessment of the protagonist's character.<ref>{{harvnb|Stoehr|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0OYyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1, 67–68]}}</ref> Elements of nihilism are also found in movies such as ''[[Taxi Driver]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-1mUcGRpt0EC&pg=PA350 350]}}</ref> ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Abrams|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QbJo2oiFFoUC&pg=PA6 6]}}</ref> ''[[Fight Club]]'',<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kavadlo|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lXwvBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14]}} | {{harvnb|Yeo|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R6k7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53]}} }}</ref> ''[[The Big Lebowski]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Gaughran|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-OV50oVxKyoC&pg=PA231 231]}}</ref> and ''[[American Psycho (film)|American Psycho]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Yeo|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R6k7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53]}}</ref>

In the field of [[law]], [[Legal nihilism|legal nihilists]] assert that laws lack an inherent meaning or a moral foundation, viewing them as unjust or arbitrary constructs used to maintain control and exercise [[Power (social and political)|power]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Walicki|2002}} | {{harvnb|Buchanan|2003|pp=20, 45–46}} | {{harvnb|Sapio|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-955DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 33–34]}} }}</ref> Religious or theological nihilism is associated with [[atheism]] and denies the [[existence of God]]. Some theorists identify this view as the root of other nihilist outlooks, such as existential and moral nihilism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Joyce|2013}} | {{harvnb|Slocombe|2006|p=7}} | {{harvnb|Olson|2006|p=618}} }}</ref>

In the [[philosophy of language]], [[Semantics|semantic]] nihilism denies that linguistic meaning is possible, arguing that there is no genuine communication since language fails to describe reality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Slocombe|2006|pp=7, 100}} | {{harvnb|Alvarez|1994|pp=354–357}} }}</ref> Logical nihilism is a theory about the relation between [[formal logic]] and [[natural language]] inference. It asserts that the [[logical consequence]] relation studied by logicians is unable to accurately reflect [[Inference|inferential]] practices in natural language.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cotnoir|2018|pp=301–303}} | {{harvnb|Dowdall|2024|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXL6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} }}</ref> In [[Africana philosophy]], black nihilism is a negative outlook on [[discrimination]] and the possibility of reforming political and social systems to avoid [[Anti-Black racism|antiblack racism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Warren|2015|pp=215–218, 233}} | {{harvnb|Johnson|2024|p=290}} }}</ref>

[[Therapeutic nihilism|Therapeutic]] or medical nihilism is the position that [[medical intervention]]s are largely ineffective. Against the advances of [[modern medicine]], it argues that the [[methodology]] of [[medical research]] is fundamentally flawed and further distorted by financial incentives, resulting in a systematic overestimation of the benefits of treatments.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stegenga|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tT5MDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Devanesan|2020|pp=1–2}}}}</ref>

=== Political nihilism ===
{{Anchor|Political|Political nihilism}}'''Political nihilism''' is a negative outlook on existing political and social structures, similar to [[anarchism]]. It seeks to uphold individual freedom against oppressive governmental controls and societal norms. Its radical and nihilistic tendencies are expressed in the revolutionary aim to dismantle these established forms of order, ranging from [[political institution]]s to traditional beliefs and social practices upholding them, without proposing alternative structures to replace them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crosby|1988|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VnPgFiW0CIC&pg=PA9 9–11, 35]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|loc=§ 1. Origins}} | {{harvnb|Crosby|1998|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Joyce|2013}} }}</ref>{{efn|[[National nihilism]], a related outlook, is a negative attitude towards one's own country.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nairn|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vQDfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA380 380]}} | {{harvnb|Marples|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=evVZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} }}</ref>In China, the term ''[[historical nihilism]]'' is used by the [[Chinese Communist Party]] to describe historical views that challenge the party's official account of the past.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cadell|2021}} | {{harvnb|Peng|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gRLREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1597 1597]}} }}</ref>}}

Political nihilism is primarily associated with the [[Russian nihilist movement]] of the late 19th century. It emerged as a reaction to the rigid social structures and [[authoritarian]] rule in [[Tsar|Tzarist]] Russia. In their rejection of established institutions and norms, Russian nihilists resorted to extreme means to promote a radical social [[revolution]], leading to various forms of violence and [[terrorism]], including [[assassination]]s and [[arson]]. Some of the revolutionaries saw Turgenev's character Bazarov as their inspiration and role model.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crosby|1988|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9VnPgFiW0CIC&pg=PA9 9–11]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|loc=§ 1. Origins}} }}</ref>