Editing Moksha (section)

== Hinduism ==

Ancient literature of different schools of Hinduism sometimes use different phrases for ''moksha''. For example, ''Keval jnana'' or ''[[kaivalya]]'' ("state of Absolute"), ''Apavarga'', ''Nihsreyasa'', ''Paramapada'', ''Brahmabhava'', ''Brahmajnana'' and ''Brahmi sthiti''. Modern literature additionally uses the Buddhist term nirvana interchangeably with ''moksha'' of Hinduism.<ref name=pjaini/><ref name=davidloy/> There is difference between these ideas, as explained elsewhere in this article, but they are all [[soteriology|soteriological]] concepts of various Indian religious traditions.

The six major orthodox schools of Hinduism have had a historic debate, and disagree over whether ''moksha'' can be achieved in this life, or only after this life.<ref name=asharma>A. Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195644418}}, pp 117</ref> Many of the 108 Upanishads discuss amongst other things ''moksha''. These discussions show the differences between the schools of Hinduism, a lack of consensus, with a few attempting to conflate the contrasting perspectives between various schools.<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}</ref> For example, freedom and deliverance from birth-rebirth, argues Maitrayana Upanishad, comes neither from the Vedanta school's doctrine (the knowledge of one's own Self as the Supreme Soul) nor from the Samkhya school's doctrine (distinction of the Purusha from what one is not), but from Vedic studies, observance of the ''Svadharma'' (personal duties), sticking to ''Asramas'' (stages of life).<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp 342</ref>

The six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy offer the following views on ''moksha'', each for their own reasons: the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Mimamsa schools of Hinduism consider ''moksha'' as possible only after death.<ref name=asharma/><ref>Note: Each school has a different meaning for ''moksha''. For example, Mimamsa school considers ''moksha'' as release into ''svarga'' (heaven), it does not recognize samsara; while Nyaya school considers ''moksha'' as linked to samsara and a release from it; See: [[:iarchive:mimamsasutra00jaimuoft|The Purva-Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini]], Transl: M.L. Sandal (1923), Chapter II, Pada I and Chapter VI, Pada I through VIII; Also see Klaus Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, Chapter 26</ref> Samkhya and Yoga schools consider ''moksha'' as possible in this life. In the Vedanta school, the Advaita sub-school concludes ''moksha'' is possible in this life,<ref name=asharma/> while Dvaita, Visistadvaita, Shuddhadvait sub-schools of Vedanta tradition believes that ''moksha'' is a continuous event, one assisted by loving devotion to God, that extends from this life to post-mortem. Beyond these six orthodox schools, some heterodox schools of Hindu tradition, such as Carvaka, deny there is a soul or after life ''moksha''.<ref>see:
* Miller, A. T. (2013), A review of "An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom", Religion, 43(1), 119–123.
* Snell, M. M. (1894). Hinduism's Points of Contact with Christianity. IV. Salvation. The Biblical World, 4(2), pp 98–113</ref>

The Nyaya school does not take ''moksha'' to be a state of bliss, but only a complete absence of suffering.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mookerjee |first=Satkari |title=The Buddhist philosophy of universal flux: an exposition of the philosophy of critical realism as expounded by the school of Dignāga |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0737-2 |edition=Repr., 1. ed. publ. by Univ. of Calcutta, 1935 |location=Delhi}}</ref>

=== Sāmkhya and Yoga ===

Both Sāmkhya and Yoga systems of religious thought are ''mokshaśāstras'', suggests [[:no:Knut A. Jacobsen|Knut Jacobsen]], they are systems of salvific liberation and release.<ref name=kjacobson>Knut Jacobson, in Jessica Frazier (Editor), Continuum companion to Hindu studies, {{ISBN|978-0-8264-9966-0}}</ref> Sāmkhya is a system of interpretation, primarily a theory about the world. Yoga is both a theory and a practice. Yoga gained wide acceptance in ancient India, its ideas and practices became part of many religious schools in Hinduism, including those that were very different from Sāmkhya. The eight limbs of yoga can be interpreted as a way to liberation (''moksha'').<ref name=kjacobson/><ref name=kjjf/>

In Sāmkhya literature, liberation is commonly referred to as ''kaivalya''. In this school, kaivalya means the realization of ''purusa'', the principle of consciousness, as independent from mind and body, as different from ''prakrti''. Like many schools of Hinduism, in Sāmkhya and Yoga schools, the emphasis is on the attainment of knowledge, ''vidyā'' or ''jñāna'', as necessary for salvific liberation, ''moksha''.<ref name=kjacobson/><ref name=jgold>Jeffrey Gold, Plato in the Light of Yoga, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pp. 20–27</ref> Yoga's purpose is then seen as a means to remove the ''avidyā'' – that is, ignorance or misleading/incorrect knowledge about one self and the universe. It seeks to end ordinary reflexive awareness (''cittavrtti nirodhah'') with deeper, purer and holistic awareness (''asamprājñāta samādhi'').<ref name=kjjf>Knut Jacobsen (2011), in Jessica Frazier (Editor), The Bloomsbury companion to Hindu studies, {{ISBN|978-1-4725-1151-5}}, pp 74–82</ref><ref>R. Sinari, The way toward Moksa, in Murty et al. (Editors) – Freedom, Progress & Society, {{ISBN|81-208-0262-4}}, pp 45–60</ref> Yoga, during the pursuit of ''moksha'', encourages practice (''abhyāsa'') with detachment (''vairāgya''), which over time leads to deep concentration (''samādhi''). Detachment means withdrawal from outer world and calming of mind, while practice means the application of effort over time. Such steps are claimed by Yoga school as leading to samādhi, a state of deep awareness, release and bliss called ''kaivalya''.<ref name=kjacobson/><ref name=jgold/>

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Yoga, or ''mārga'' (meaning "way" or "path"), in Hinduism is widely classified into four spiritual approaches.<ref>See:
* John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, see articles on bhaktimārga, jnanamārga, karmamārga;
* Bhagwad Gita (The Celestial Song), Chapters 2:56–57, 12, 13:1–28
* Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga: Theory and practice, Shambhala, {{ISBN|1-57062-935-8}};
* D. Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Cultural Psychology, in Anthony Marsella (Series Editor), International and Cultural Psychology, Springer New York, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, pp 93–140</ref> The first mārga is [[Jñāna Yoga]], the way of knowledge. The second mārga is [[Bhakti Yoga]], the way of loving devotion to God. The third mārga is [[Karma Yoga]], the way of works. The fourth mārga is [[Rāja Yoga]], the way of contemplation and meditation. These mārgas are part of different schools in Hinduism, and their definition and methods to ''moksha''.<ref>H. Negendra (2008), Int Journal of Yoga, Jul–Dec, 1(2), pp 43–44</ref> For example, the Advaita Vedanta school relies on Jñāna Yoga in its teachings of ''moksha''.<ref name=edav>Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A philosophical reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824802714}}, pp 104–106</ref> The ''marga''s need not lead to all forms of moksha, according to some schools of Hinduism. For example, the [[Ekasarana dharma]] denies the ''sayujya'' form of mukti, where the complete absorption in God deprives ''jiva'' of the sweetness and bliss associated with ''bhakti''. [[Madhavdev|Madhavadeva]] begins the [[Naam Ghosa|Namghoxa]] by declaring his admiration for devotees who do not prefer ''mukti''.<ref>{{Harv|Sarma|1966|pp=41–42}}</ref>

=== Vedanta ===
{{Main|Vedanta}}
The three main sub-schools in Vedanta school of Hinduism – [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishistadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]] – each have their own views about ''moksha''.

==== Advaita Vedanta ====
The Vedantic school of Hinduism suggests the first step towards mokṣa begins with ''mumuksutva'', that is desire of liberation.<ref name=klausklost/> This takes the form of questions about self, what is true, why do things or events make us happy or cause suffering, and so on. This longing for liberating knowledge is assisted by, claims [[Adi Shankara]] of Advaita Vedanta,<ref>Shankara, Sarva vedanta siddhantasara 230–239</ref> a [[guru]] (teacher), study of historical knowledge and [[viveka]] (critical thinking). This is because a guru can help one develop knowledge of maya (the illusionary nature of the world), a critical step on the path to moksha.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=R.C |title=Moksha and the Hindu Worldview |publisher=New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications |year=2013 |pages=27 |language=English}}</ref> Shankara cautions that the guru and historic knowledge may be distorted, so traditions and historical assumptions must be questioned by the individual seeking ''moksha''. Those who are on their path to ''moksha'' (samnyasin), suggests [[Klaus Klostermaier]], are quintessentially free individuals, without craving for anything in the worldly life, thus are neither dominated by, nor dominating anyone else.<ref name=klausklost/>

[[Vivekachudamani]], which literally means "Crown Jewel of Discriminatory Reasoning", is a book devoted to moksa in Advaita Vedanta philosophy. It explains what behaviors and pursuits lead to ''moksha'', as well what actions and assumptions hinder ''moksha''. The four essential conditions, according to Vivekachudamani, before one can commence on the path of ''moksha'' include (1) ''vivekah'' (discrimination, critical reasoning) between everlasting principles and fleeting world; (2) ''viragah'' (indifference, lack of craving) for material rewards; (3) ''samah'' (calmness of mind), and (4) ''damah'' (self restraint, [[Temperance (virtue)|temperance]]).<ref>D. Datta  (1888), Moksha, or the Vedántic Release, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, New Series, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Oct., 1888), pp. 516</ref> The ''Brahmasutrabhasya'' adds to the above four requirements, the following: ''uparati'' (lack of bias, dispassion), ''titiksa'' (endurance, patience), ''sraddha'' (faith) and ''[[samadhana]]'' (intentness, commitment).<ref name=edav/>

The [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] tradition considers ''moksha'' achievable by removing [[Avidya (Hinduism)|avidya]] (ignorance) by knowledge. ''Moksha'' is seen as a final release from illusion, and through knowledge (''anubhava'') of one's own fundamental nature, which is [[Satcitananda]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jeffrey | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The description comprises the three [[Sanskrit]] words ''sat-chit-ananda'':
* ''[[Sat (Sanskrit)|sat]]'' सत् ([[wikt:present participle|present participle]]); [Sanskrit root ''as'', "''to be''"]:{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} "Truth", "Absolute Being",<ref name="Maharishi">[http://www.bienfaits-meditation.com/en/maharishi/videos/sat-cit-ananda Maharishi's Teaching, ''Meaning of the word "Satcitananda" (Sat Chit Ananda)'']</ref> ''Sat'' describes an essence that is pure and timeless, that never changes.<ref name="Maharishi" />
* ''[[Cit (consciousness)|cit]]''  चित् ([[noun]]): "consciousness",<ref name="Maharishi" /> "true consciousness",<ref>{{cite web |title=Sat-Cit-Ananda Eternity Knowledged and Bliss, Kala Material Time, Form |url=https://iskcondesiretree.com/profiles/blogs/satcitananda-eternity#:~:text=Saccid%C4%81nanda%2C%20Satchidananda%2C%20or%20Sat%2D,%2C%20consciousness%2C%20and%20bliss%20respectively.&text=The%20Supreme%20Personality%20ofGodhead%20is%20sac%2Dcid%2Dananda%2Dvigraha. |website=ISKCON Desire Tree {{!}} IDT |access-date=3 November 2020 |date=8 March 2010}}</ref> "to be consciousness of",<ref name="SDchit">{{Cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+chit&trans=Translate&direction=AU |title=Sanskrit Dictionary, ''chit'' |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510035740/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+chit&trans=Translate&direction=AU |archive-date=10 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "to understand",<ref name="SDchit" /> "to comprehend".<ref name="SDchit" />
* ''ānanda'' आनन्द (noun): "bliss",<ref name="Maharishi" /> "true bliss",{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}  "happiness",<ref name="SDananda" />  "joy",<ref name="SDananda" /> "delight",<ref name="SDananda" />  "pleasure"<ref name="SDananda">{{Cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+ananda&trans=Translate&direction=AU |title=Sanskrit dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, ''ananda'' |access-date=20 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701064641/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+ananda&trans=Translate&direction=AU |archive-date=1 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} Advaita holds there is no being/non-being distinction between ''Atman'', ''[[Brahman]]'', and ''[[Paramatman]]''. True knowledge is a direct, permanent realization that the Atman and  Brahman are one. This realization instantly removes ignorance and leads to ''moksha'', and is considered timeless, eliminating the cycle of birth and death (''samsara'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Chandradhar |url=http://archive.org/details/indianphilosophyacriticalsurveychandradharsharmaseeadvaitastudies_202003_756_t |title=Indian Philosophy A Critical Survey |pages=274–275}}</ref> Advaita Vedanta emphasizes [[Jnana Yoga]] as the means of achieving ''moksha''.<ref name=edav/> Bliss, claims this school, is the fruit of knowledge (vidya) and work (karma).<ref>Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp 213</ref>

==== Dvaita ====
The [[Dvaita]] (dualism) traditions define ''moksha'' as the loving, eternal union with God and considered the highest perfection of existence. Dvaita schools suggest every soul encounters liberation differently.<ref>Betty, Stafford. "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa." Asian Philosophy 20.2 (2010): 215–224. Academic Search Elite. Web. 24 Sept. 2012.</ref> Dualist traditions (e.g. [[Vaishnava]]) see God as the object of love, for example, a personified monotheistic conception of [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]] or [[Adishakti]]. By immersing oneself in the love of God, one's [[karma]]s slough off, one's illusions decay, and truth is lived.  Both the worshiped and worshiper gradually lose their illusory sense of separation and only One beyond all names remains. This is salvation to dualist schools of Hinduism. Dvaita Vedanta emphasizes [[Bhakti Yoga]] as the means of achieving ''moksha''.<ref>N.S.S. Raman (2009), Ethics in Bhakti Philosophical Literature, in R. Prasad – A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, {{ISBN|978-8180695957}}, Chapter 19</ref>

==== Vishishtadvaita ====
The [[Vishistadvaita]] tradition, led by [[Ramanuja]], defines avidya and ''moksha'' differently from the Advaita tradition. To Ramanuja, avidya is a focus on the self, and vidya is a focus on a loving god. The Vishistadvaita school argues that other schools of Hinduism create a false sense of agency in individuals, which makes the individual think oneself as potential or self-realized god. Such ideas, claims Ramanuja, decay to materialism, hedonism and self worship. Individuals forget ''Ishvara'' (God). Mukti, to Vishistadvaita school, is release from such avidya, towards the intuition and eternal union with God.<ref>Abha Singh (October 2001), Social Philosophy of Ramanuja: its modern relevance, ''Indian Philosophical Quarterly'', Vol. 28, No. 4, pp 491–498</ref>

=== Mokṣha in this life ===

Among the Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta schools of Hinduism, liberation and freedom reached within one's life is referred to as ''jivanmukti'', and the individual who has experienced this state is called ''[[jivanmukta]]'' (self-realized person).<ref>see:
* Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}};
* Norman E. Thomas (April 1988), Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy, Missiology, Volume 16, Number 2, pp 149–160</ref> Dozens of Upanishads, including those from middle Upanishadic period, mention or describe the state of liberation, ''jivanmukti''.<ref>See for example Muktika Upanishad, Varaha Upanishad, Adhyatma Upanishad, Sandilya Upanishad, [[Tejobindu Upanishad]], etc.; in K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), [[:iarchive:thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft|Thirty Minor Upanishads]], University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada</ref><ref>[[Paul Deussen]], [[:iarchive:philosophyupani00deusgoog|The philosophy of the Upanishads]], Translated by A.S. Geden (1906), T&T Clark, Edinburgh</ref> Some contrast ''jivanmukti'' with ''videhamukti'' (''moksha'' from samsara after death).<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1 & 2, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1467-7}}</ref> Jivanmukti is a state that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an individual, claim these ancient texts of Hindu philosophy. For example, according to Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad, the liberated individual shows attributes such as:<ref>see:

K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), [[:iarchive:thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft|Thirty Minor Upanishads]], University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada, pp 140–147
* S. Nikhilananda (1958), Hinduism : Its meaning for the liberation of the spirit, Harper, {{ISBN|978-0911206265}}, pp 53–79;
* Andrew Fort (1998), Jivanmukti in Transformation, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-3904-6}}</ref>
* He is not bothered by disrespect and endures cruel words, treats others with respect regardless of how others treat him;
* When confronted by an angry person he does not return anger, instead replies with soft and kind words;
* Even if tortured, he speaks and trusts the truth;
* He does not crave for blessings or expect praise from others;
* He never injures or harms any life or being (ahimsa), he is intent in the welfare of all beings;<ref>see also Sandilya Upanishad for ahimsa and other virtues; Quote: "तत्र हिंसा नाम मनोवाक्कायकर्मभिः सर्वभूतेषु सर्वदा क्लेशजननम्"; Aiyar translates this as: He practices Ahimsa – no injury or harm to any living being at any time through actions of his body, his speech or in his mind; K.N. Aiyar (Transl. 1914), [[:iarchive:thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft|Thirty Minor Upanishads]], University of Toronto Robart Library Archives, Canada, pp 173–174</ref>
* He is as comfortable being alone as in the presence of others;
* He is as comfortable with a bowl, at the foot of a tree in tattered robe without help, as when he is in a mithuna (union of mendicants), grama (village) and nagara (city);
* He doesn't care about or wear ṣikha (tuft of hair on the back of head for religious reasons), nor the holy thread across his body. To him, knowledge is sikha, knowledge is the holy thread, knowledge alone is supreme. Outer appearances and rituals do not matter to him, only knowledge matters;
* For him there is no invocation nor dismissal of deities, no mantra nor non-mantra, no prostrations nor worship of gods, goddess or ancestors, nothing other than knowledge of Self;
* He is humble, high-spirited, of clear and steady mind, straightforward, compassionate, patient, indifferent, courageous, speaks firmly and with sweet words.

When a Jivanmukta dies he achieves Paramukti and becomes a Paramukta. Jivanmukta experience liberation while alive and also after death i.e., after becoming paramukta, while Videhmukta experiences liberation only after death.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}

=== Mokṣa in Balinese Hinduism ===

Balinese Hinduism incorporates ''moksha'' as one of five [[tattva]]s. The other four are: ''brahman'' (the one supreme god head, not to be confused with Brahmin), ''atma'' (soul or spirit), [[karma]] (actions and reciprocity, causality), ''samsara'' (principle of rebirth, reincarnation). ''Moksha'', in Balinese Hindu belief, is the possibility of unity with the divine; it is sometimes referred to as nirwana.<ref>Balinese Hindus spell words slightly differently from Indian Hindus; tattva in India is spelled tattwa in Bali, nirvana in India is spelled nirwana in Bali, etc.</ref><ref name=anettheim>Anna Nettheim (2011), [http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:10091/SOURCE02 Tattwa are the words of the world: Balinese narratives and creative transformation], Ph.D. Thesis, University of New South Wales, Australia</ref>