Editing Manuel Noriega (section)

==U.S. invasion of Panama==
{{Main|United States invasion of Panama}}

===Genesis===
In March 1988, the U.S. government entered into negotiations with Noriega seeking his resignation. Panama was represented at these negotiations by [[Rómulo Escobar Bethancourt]].<ref name="NYT">{{cite news |last1=Lambert |first1=Bruce |title=Romulo Escobar Is Dead at 68; Helped Panama to Regain Canal |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/30/obituaries/romulo-escobar-is-dead-at-68-helped-panama-to-regain-canal.html |access-date=April 28, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 30, 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Elliott Abrams sugiere a EE.UU. ofrecerle una amnistía a Maduro para que acepte su derrota el 28J | website=AlbertoNews - Periodismo sin censura | date=July 19, 2024 | url=https://albertonews.com/internacionales/elliott-abrams-sugiere-a-ee-uu-ofrecerle-una-amnistia-a-maduro-para-que-acepte-su-derrota-el-28j/ | language=es | access-date=July 27, 2024}}</ref> Negotiations collapsed after several months of lengthy and inconclusive talks; according to Dinges, Noriega had no intentions of ever resigning.{{sfn|Dinges|1990|pp=300–301}} On December 15, 1989, the PRD-dominated legislature spoke of "a state of war" between the United States and Panama. It also declared Noriega "chief executive officer" of the government, formalizing a state of affairs that had existed for six years.{{sfn|Harding|2006|p=114}} The U.S. government stated that Noriega's forces were harassing U.S. troops and civilians. Three incidents in particular occurred very near the time of the invasion, and were mentioned by Bush as a reason for the invasion.<ref>{{cite news |title = Fighting in Panama: The President; A Transcript of Bush's Address on the Decision to Use Force in Panama |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/21/world/fighting-panama-president-transcript-bush-s-address-decision-use-force-panama.html|agency = Federal News Service |date = December 21, 1989 |work = The New York Times }}</ref> In a December 16 incident, four U.S. personnel were stopped at a roadblock outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City. The [[United States Department of Defense]] said that the servicemen were traveling unarmed in a private vehicle, and that they attempted to flee the scene only after their vehicle was surrounded by a crowd of civilians and PDF troops. First Lieutenant Robert Paz of the [[United States Marine Corps]] was shot and killed in the incident.<ref name="Kenneth Freed">{{cite news |title = Some Blame Rogue Band of Marines for Picking Fight, Spurring Panama Invasion |url = https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-12-22-mn-6183-story.html |first = Kenneth |last = Freed |date = December 22, 1990 |work = Los Angeles Times }}</ref> An American couple who witnessed the incident was also arrested and harassed by the PDF.{{sfn|Kempe|1990|pp=8–11}}

===Invasion===
The U.S. launched its invasion of Panama on December 20, 1989. Although the killing of the Marine was the ostensible reason for the invasion, the operation had been planned for months before his death.<ref name="BBC1" /> The move was the largest military action by the U.S. since the [[Vietnam War]], and included more than 27,000 soldiers,<ref name="nytimesobit"/> as well as 300 aircraft.{{sfn|Galván|2012|p=190}}

The invasion began with a bombing campaign that targeted Noriega's private vehicles, and the PDF headquarters located in [[Panama City]]. Several slums in the middle of the city were destroyed as a result.{{sfn|Galván|2012|p=190}} The day after the invasion, Noriega's deputy Colonel [[Luis del Cid]] retreated with some soldiers to the mountains outside [[David, Chiriquí|David City]], after laying [[land mine|mines]] at the airport. Though this was part of a contingency plan for the invasion, del Cid quickly decided that the Panamanian military was not in a position to fight a guerrilla war against the U.S., and negotiated a surrender.{{sfn|Kempe|1990|pp=18–20}} Twenty-three U.S. soldiers were killed in the operation, including two that were killed by [[friendly fire]]; 324 soldiers were injured.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Broder |first1=John M. |title='Friendly Fire' Killed 2 GIs in Panama : Invasion: The Pentagon sharply increases its estimate of U.S. casualties inflicted by own forces. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-06-19-mn-196-story.html |access-date=June 3, 2020 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=June 19, 1990}}</ref> Casualties among the Panamanian forces were much higher; between 300 and 845.<ref name="nytimesobit" />{{sfn|Galván|2012|p=190}} The U.S. government reported between 202 and 250 civilian deaths; [[Americas Watch]] estimated 300 civilian deaths; and the United Nations estimated 500 civilian deaths.{{sfn|Galván|2012|p=190}}<ref>{{Cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |title=Panama and U.S. Strive To Settle on Death Toll|date=April 1, 1990 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/01/world/panama-and-us-strive-to-settle-on-death-toll.html|last1=Rohter|first1=Larry|last2=Times|first2=Special To the New York}}</ref>

On December 29, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] voted, 75–20 with 40 abstentions, to condemn the invasion as a "flagrant violation of international law".<ref>{{cite web|author=International Development Research Centre |url=http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/963-1/ |title=The Responsibility to Protect |date=December 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213081648/http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/963-1/ |archive-date=December 13, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |newspaper=The New York Times |title=After Noriega: United Nations; Deal Is Reached at U.N. on Panama Seat as Invasion Is Condemned |date=December 30, 1989 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/30/world/after-noriega-united-nations-deal-reached-un-panama-seat-invasion-condemned.html?pagewanted=1|last1=Lewis |first1=Paul |last2=Times |first2=Special To the New York }}</ref> According to a [[CBS]] poll, 92% of Panamanian adults supported the U.S. incursion, and 76% wished that U.S. forces had invaded in October during the coup.<ref name="pastor">{{cite book |last=Pastor |first=Robert A |title=Exiting the Whirlpool: U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Latin America and the Caribbean |publisher=Westview Press |page=96 |isbn=978-0-8133-3811-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-nNDAM91uUC |year=2001}}</ref> Activist Barbara Trent disputed this finding, saying in a 1992 Academy Award-winning documentary ''[[The Panama Deception]]'' that the Panamanian surveys were completed in wealthy, English-speaking neighborhoods in Panama City, among Panamanians most likely to support U.S. actions.<ref name="trent">{{Cite AV media |people=Trent, Barbara (Director) |title=The Panama Deception |date=July 31, 1992 |publisher=Empowerment Project |url=https://www.empowermentproject.org/pages/panama.html |format=Documentary film}}</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] described the reaction of the civilian population to the invasion as "generally sympathetic".<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/reports/1989/WR89/Panama.htm#TopOfPage Panama] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113164637/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1989/WR89/Panama.htm#TopOfPage |date=January 13, 2017 }}, Human Rights Watch, 1989.</ref>

===Capture===
[[File:Manuel Noriega with agents from the U.S. DEA.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Noriega being escorted onto a [[U.S. Air Force]] aircraft by agents from the U.S. [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] (DEA) on January 3, 1990]]

Noriega received several warnings about the invasion from individuals within his government; though he initially disbelieved them, they grew more frequent as the invasion drew near, eventually convincing Noriega to go on the run.{{sfn|Kempe|1990|pp=13–14}} Noriega used a number of subterfuges, including lookalikes and playbacks of his recorded voice, to confuse U.S. surveillance as to his whereabouts.{{sfn|Kempe|1990|pp=14–15}} During his flight, Noriega reportedly took shelter with several supportive politicians, including Balbina Herrera, the mayor of [[San Miguelito District|San Miguelito]].{{sfn|Kempe|1990|p=16}} The last two days of his flight were spent partly with his ally [[Jorge Krupnick]], an arms dealer also wanted by the U.S.{{sfn|Kempe|1990|pp=16, 21–23}} Kempe reported that Noriega considered seeking sanctuary in the Cuban or Nicaraguan embassies, but both buildings were surrounded by U.S. troops.{{sfn|Kempe|1990|pp=22–23}} On the fifth day of the invasion, Noriega and four others took [[sanctuary]] in the [[Apostolic Nunciature]], the [[Holy See]]'s embassy in Panama. Having threatened to flee to the countryside and lead guerrilla warfare if not given refuge, he instead turned over the majority of his weapons, and requested sanctuary from Archbishop [[José Sebastián Laboa Gallego|José Sebastián Laboa]], the papal [[nuncio]].{{sfn|Kempe|1990|pp=23–26}}

Prevented by [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations|treaty]] from invading the Holy See's embassy, U.S. soldiers from [[Delta Force]] erected a perimeter around the Nunciature. Attempts to dislodge Noriega from within included gunning vehicle engines, turning a nearby field into a landing pad for helicopters, and playing rock music at loud volumes (a Van Halen cassette tape was provided by Special Forces Sergeant John Bishop). After ten days, Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990.<ref name="nytimesobit" />{{sfn|Buckley|1991|pp=245–254}} He was detained as a [[prisoner of war]], and later taken to the United States.<ref name="BBC1" />{{sfn|Gilboa|1995|pp=539–540}}