Editing Manchuria (section)

== History ==
{{History of Manchuria}}
{{Main|History of Manchuria}}

=== Early history ===

[[File:Ussuriysk-Stone-Tortoise-S-3542.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A 12th-century [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen]] stone tortoise in today's [[Ussuriysk]]]]
[[File:Three Kingdoms of Korea Map.png|thumb|250px|The [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]] occupied roughly half of Manchuria, 5th century AD]]
Manchuria was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including [[Manchu people|Manchu]], [[Mongols]], [[Koreans]], [[Nani people|Nanai]], [[Nivkhs]], [[Ulchs]], [[Hui]], possibly [[Turkic peoples]], and [[Han Chinese|ethnic Han Chinese]] in southern Manchuria.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} Various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including the [[Sushen]], [[Donghu people|Donghu]], [[Xianbei]], [[Wuhuan]], [[Mohe people|Mohe]], [[Khitan people|Khitan]] and [[Jurchens]], have risen to power in Manchuria. [[Koreanic languages|Koreanic]] kingdoms such as [[Gojoseon]] (before 108 BCE), [[Buyeo kingdom|Buyeo]] (2nd century BCE to 494 CE) and [[Goguryeo]] (37 BCE to 688 CE) also became established in large parts of this area. The Chinese [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] (221–206 BCE), [[Han dynasty|Han]] (202 BCE–9 CE and 25 CE–220 CE), [[Cao Wei]] (220–266), [[Western Jin dynasty|Western Jin]] (266–316), and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] (618–690 and 705–907) dynasties controlled parts of Manchuria.<ref>''The Cambridge History of China'', Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.</ref> Parts of northwestern Manchuria came under the control of the [[First Turkic Khaganate]] of 552–603 and of the [[Eastern Turkic Khaganate]] of 581–630. Early Manchuria had a mixed economy of hunting, fishing, livestock, and agriculture.

With the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1269) to the south, the [[Khitan people]] of [[Inner Mongolia]] created the [[Liao dynasty]] (916–1125) and conquered Outer Mongolia and Manchuria, going on to control the adjacent part of the [[Sixteen Prefectures]] in [[North China|Northern China]] as well. The Liao dynasty became the first state to control all of Manchuria.<ref>*[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227 Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands By Mark Hudson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111803/https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227 |date=16 November 2022 }}
* Ledyard, 1983, 323</ref>

[[File:Yuan dynasty and Manchuria.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Map of [[Manchuria under Yuan rule]] in the 14th century, including [[provinces of the Yuan Empire|province]] of [[Liaoyang]] and northern Korea]]
[[File:Map-Qing Dynasty 1616-en.jpg|thumb|250px|Map [[Manchuria under Ming rule]] in 1616, the homeland of the [[Jurchens]] who became the [[Manchu people|Manchus]] and founded [[Later Jin (1616–1636)]]]]
In the early 12th century, the [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] Jurchen people, who were Liao's tributaries, overthrew the Liao and formed the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)]], which went on to control parts of Northern China and Mongolia [[Jurchen campaigns against the Song dynasty|after a series of successful military campaigns]]. During the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]] rule of China (1271–1368),<ref>Berger, Patricia A. ''Empire of emptiness: Buddhist art and political authority in Qing China''. p.25.</ref> Manchuria was [[Manchuria under Yuan rule|administered]] as [[Liaoyang province]]. In 1375 [[Naghachu]], a Mongol official of the Mongolia-based [[Northern Yuan dynasty]] of 1368–1635 in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong, but later [[Ming campaign against the Uriankhai|surrendered to the Ming dynasty]] in 1387. In order to protect the northern border areas, the Ming dynasty decided to "pacify" the Jurchens in order to deal with its problems with Yuan remnants along its northern border. The Ming [[Manchuria under Ming rule|solidified control over Manchuria]] under the [[Yongle Emperor]] ({{reign | 1402 | 1424}}), establishing the [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]] of 1409–1435. Starting in the 1580s, a [[Jianzhou Jurchens|Jianzhou Jurchen]] chieftain, [[Nurhaci]] (1558–1626), started to unify Jurchen tribes of the region. Over the next several decades, the Jurchen [[Manchuria under Qing rule|took control of most of Manchuria]]. In 1616 Nurhaci founded the Later Jin dynasty, which later became known as the [[Qing dynasty]]. The Qing defeated the [[Evenks|Evenk]]-[[Daur people|Daur]] federation led by the Evenki chief [[Bombogor (chief)|Bombogor]] and beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into the [[Eight Banners|Banners]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Crossley |first1= Pamela Kyle |title= A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date= 2002 |publisher= University of California Press |isbn= 978-0-520-23424-6 |page= 196 |edition= illustrated, reprint |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref>

[[File:A Tartar Huntsmen on His Horse.jpg|thumb|left|A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink-and-color painting on silk]]

Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year, the "[[Chinese god]]", motifs such as the dragon, spirals, and scrolls, agriculture, husbandry, methods of heating, and material goods such as iron cooking-pots, silk, and cotton spread among the Amur natives including the [[Udege people|Udeghes]], [[Ulchi]]s, and [[Nani people|Nanais]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214 Forsyth 1994] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111804/https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 214.</ref>

In 1644, after peasant rebels sacked the [[Ming dynasty]]'s capital of Beijing, the Jurchens (now called Manchus) allied with Ming general [[Wu Sangui]] and seized control of Beijing, overthrowing the short-lived [[Shun dynasty]] (1644–1649) and establishing [[Qing-dynasty]] rule (1644–1912) over all of China. The Manchu conquest of China involved the deaths of over 25&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{cite news |title= 5 Of The 10 Deadliest Wars Began In China |url= https://www.businessinsider.com/bloodiest-conflicts-in-chinese-history-2014-10 |work= Business Insider |date= 6 October 2014}}</ref> The Qing dynasty built the [[Willow Palisade]] – a system of ditches and embankments – during the later 17th century to restrict the movement of Han civilians into Jilin and Heilongjiang.<ref>Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46. {{doi|10.2307/2658945}}</ref> Only [[Eight Banners|bannermen]], including Han bannermen, were allowed to settle in [[Jilin]] and [[Heilongjiang]].
[[File:Qing dynasty and Manchuria.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of [[Manchuria under Qing rule]] in 1820, including the provinces of Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang]]
After conquering the Ming, the Qing often identified their state as "China" (中國, ''Zhongguo''; "Middle Kingdom"), and referred to it as ''Dulimbai Gurun'' ("Middle Kingdom") in Manchu.<ref>*[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117 Hauer 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111804/https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 117.
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80 Dvořák 1895] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112044/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 80.
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102 Wu 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112043/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 102.</ref> In the ''[[Qing shilu]]'' the lands of the Qing state (including Manchuria and present-day Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) are thus identified as "the Middle Kingdom" in both the Chinese and [[Manchu language|Manchu]] languages in roughly two-thirds of the cases, while the term refers to the traditional Chinese provinces populated by the Han in roughly one third of the cases. It was also common to use "China" (''Zhongguo'', ''Dulimbai gurun'') to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs. In diplomatic documents, the term "Chinese language" (''Dulimbai gurun i bithe'') referred to the Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing. The Qing explicitly stated that the lands in Manchuria belonged to "China" (Zhongguo, Dulimbai gurun) in Qing edicts and in the 1689 [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006], pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</ref>

===Population change===
The Manchu rules of the Qing dynasty initially prohibited Han Chinese from settling in the region.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=32}} Despite this restriction, a constant flow of Han Chinese farmers from North China settled there.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=32}}

Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese peasants to rent their land and to grow grain; most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted as they crossed the Great Wall and Willow Palisade. During the eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of courier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands; in garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141 Richards 2003] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112050/https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 141.</ref>

The Qing resettled Han Chinese farmers from north China to the area along the [[Liao River]] in order to restore the land to cultivation.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 Reardon-Anderson 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 504.</ref> Han Chinese squatters reclaimed wasteland, and other Han rented land from Manchu landlords.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 Reardon-Anderson 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 505.</ref>

By the 18th century, despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on Manchu and Mongol lands, the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China – who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought – into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Reardon-Anderson | first = James |title = Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia During the Qing Dynasty |journal = Environmental History |volume = 5 | issue = 4 |pages = 503–509 |date = 2000 | jstor = 3985584 | doi = 10.2307/3985584 }}</ref> The [[Qianlong Emperor]] ({{reign | 1735 | 1796}}) allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite his having issued edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776.<ref>[http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf Scharping 1998] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006200908/http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf |date=6 October 2018 }}, p. 18.</ref> Han Chinese then streamed into Manchuria, both illegally and legally, over the [[Great Wall of China]] and the [[Willow Palisade]].<ref>{{citation|first = John F. |last = Richards|title= The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141|date= 2003|publisher= University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-23075-0|page= 141}}</ref> Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 Reardon-Anderson 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 507.</ref> Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, Han Chinese settled the path linking [[Jinzhou]], [[Shenyang|Fengtian]], [[Tieling]], [[Changchun]], [[Hulun Buir|Hulun]], and [[Ningguta]] during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese had become the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 Reardon-Anderson 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 508.</ref> To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu-only lands along the [[Songhua River|Sungari]] to Han Chinese at the beginning of the [[Daoguang Emperor]]'s 1820–1850 reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s, according to [[Évariste Régis Huc|Abbé Huc]].<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 Reardon-Anderson 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 509.</ref>

The demographic change was not caused solely by Han migration. Manchus also refused to stay in Manchuria. In the late 18th century, Manchus in Beijing were sent to Manchuria as part of a plan to reduce the burden on the court, but they tried to return by every means possible. With the exception of 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers and their families and a military colony established in the 1850s, Manchuria was devoid of Manchus. By 1900, 15 million of Manchuria's 17 million inhabitants were Han Chinese.<ref name="Elliot 2000"/>{{rp|636}}{{sfn|Gamsa|2020|p=8}}
[[File:MANCHURIA-U.S.S.R BOUNDARY Ct002999.jpg|thumb|Map showing the original border (in pink) between Manchuria and Russia according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689, and subsequent losses of territory to Russia in the treaties of Aigun 1858 (beige) and Peking 1860 (red)]]
[[File:Kitaiskaia Street in Harbin.JPG|thumb|[[Harbin]]'s Kitayskaya Street ([[Russian language|Russian]] for "Chinese Street"), now [[Central Street (Harbin)|Zhongyang Street]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]] for "Central Street"), before 1945]]

===Russian invasions===
The [[Russian conquest of Siberia]] was met with indigenous resistance to colonization, but [[Russian Cossacks]] crushed the natives. The conquest of Siberia and Manchuria also resulted in the spread of [[infectious diseases]]. Historian John F. Richards wrote: "... New diseases weakened and demoralized the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The worst of these was [[smallpox]] "because of its swift spread, the high death rates, and the permanent disfigurement of survivors." ... In the 1690s, smallpox epidemics reduced Yukagir numbers by an estimated 44 percent."<ref>{{cite book |last1= Richards |first1= John F. |title= The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World |date= 2003 |publisher= University of California Press |isbn= 0-520-93935-2 |page= 538 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=i85noYD9C0EC&pg=PA538}}</ref> At the behest of people like [[Vasilii Poyarkov]] in 1645 and [[Yerofei Khabarov]] in 1650, Russian Cossacks killed some peoples like the [[Daur people]] of [[Inner Mongolia]] and [[Xinjiang]] to the extent that some authors speak of [[genocide]].<ref>For example:
{{cite book
 | last1 = Bisher
 | first1 = Jamie
 | orig-year = 2005
 | title = White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ
 | location = London
 | publisher = Routledge
 | publication-date = 2006
 | page = 6
 | isbn = 978-1-135-76595-8
 | access-date = 24 September 2020
 | quote = Armed resistance against the Russian conquest begat slaughters by both invaders and the original inhabitants, but the worst cases led to genocide of indigenous groups such as the Dauri people on the Amur River, who were hunted down and butchered during campaigns by Vasilii Poyarkov about 1645 and Yerofei Khabarov in 1650.
}}</ref>
The Daurs initially deserted their villages since they had heard about the cruelty of the Russians the first time Khabarov came.<ref>{{cite news | date= 17 December 2009 | title=The Amur's siren song | url= http://www.economist.com/node/15108641 | newspaper= The Economist | edition= From the print edition: Christmas Specials |access-date= 15 August 2014 }}</ref> The second time he came, the Daurs decided to do battle against the Russians instead, but were slaughtered by Russian guns.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA104 Forsyth 1994] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112044/https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA104 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 104.</ref> The Russians came to be known as "red-beards".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&pg=PA64 Stephan 1996] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112046/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&pg=PA64 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 64.</ref> The Amur natives called Russian Cossacks ''luocha'' (羅剎), after demons in Buddhist mythology, because of their cruelty towards the Amur tribespeople, who were subjects of the Qing.<ref>[http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/EmoryEndeavors4Complete.pdf Kang 2013] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140523204757/http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/EmoryEndeavors4Complete.pdf |date= 23 May 2014 }}, p. 1.</ref> The Qing viewed Russian proselytization of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] to the indigenous peoples along the Amur River as a threat.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0169 Kim 2012/2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012195320/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0169 |date=12 October 2016 }}, p. 169.</ref>

In 1858 Russian diplomacy forced a weakening Qing dynasty to cede Manchuria north of the Amur to Russia under the [[Treaty of Aigun]]. In 1860, with the [[Convention of Peking|Treaty of Peking]], the Russians managed to obtain a further large slice of Manchuria, east of the [[Ussuri River]]. As a result, Manchuria became divided into a Russian half (known as [[Outer Manchuria]] or Russian Manchuria), and a remaining Chinese region (known as Manchuria). In modern literature, "Manchuria" usually refers to Manchuria in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manchuria {{!}} historical region, China {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchuria |access-date=2023-04-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> As a result of the Treaties of Aigun and Peking, Qing China lost access to the [[Sea of Japan]].

=== History after 1860 ===
[[File:1940 Manchurian visa.jpg|thumb|upright|left|1940 [[Manchukuo]] visa issued at Hamburg]]

To counter the increasing influence of [[Meiji era|Meiji era Japan]] in the region, the Qing granted Russia the right to construct railways in Manchuria, including the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] in 1896.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=32}}

In the ''[[Chuang Guandong]]'' movement, many [[Han Chinese|Han]] farmers, mostly from the [[Shandong peninsula]] moved there. By 1921, Harbin, northern Manchuria's largest city, had a population of 300,000, including 100,000 [[Harbin Russians|Russians]].<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68 Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112046/https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68 |date=16 November 2022 }}''. Yu-lin Wu (1995). [[World Scientific]]. p.68. {{ISBN|981-02-2287-4}}</ref> Japan replaced Russian influence in the southern half of Manchuria as a result of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904–1905. Most of the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred from Russia to Japan, and became the [[South Manchurian Railway]]. Japanese influence extended into [[Outer Manchuria]] in the wake of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], but Outer Manchuria had reverted to Soviet control by 1925. Manchuria was an important region due to its rich natural resources including coal, fertile soil, and various minerals. For [[Empire of Japan|pre–World War II Japan]], Manchuria was an essential source of raw materials. Without occupying Manchuria, the Japanese probably could not have carried out their plan for conquest over Southeast Asia or taken the risk of attacking the [[United States]] and the [[British Empire]] in 1941.<ref>Edward Behr, ''The Last Emperor'', 1987, p. 202</ref>

There was a major [[epidemic]] known as the [[Manchurian plague]] in 1910–1911, likely caused by the inexperienced hunting of [[marmots]], many of whom are diseased. The cheap railway transport and the harsh winters, where the hunters sheltered in close confinement, helped to propagate the disease.<ref>[https://disasterhistory.org/the-manchurian-plague-1910-11 "Manchurian plague, 1910–11"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308205528/https://disasterhistory.org/the-manchurian-plague-1910-11 |date=8 March 2018 }}, disasterhistory.org, Iain Meiklejohn.</ref> The response required close coordination between the Chinese, Russian and Japanese authorities and international disease experts held an 'International Plague Conference' in the northern city of Shenyang after the disease was under control to learn the lessons.<ref>[https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/18/china/great-manchurian-plague-china-hnk-intl/index.html In 1911, another epidemic swept through China. That time, the world came together.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419065959/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/18/china/great-manchurian-plague-china-hnk-intl/index.html |date=19 April 2020 }} CNN, April 19, 2020</ref>

In 1915, Japan forced China to cede economic privileges in Manchuria to Japan, including concessions in [[Anshan]].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=29}}

It was reported that among Banner people, both Manchu and Chinese (Hanjun) in Aihun, Heilongjiang in the 1920s, would seldom marry with Han civilians, but they (Manchu and Chinese Bannermen) would mostly intermarry with each other.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA263 Rhoads 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112046/https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA263 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 263.</ref> Owen Lattimore reported that during his January 1930 visit to Manchuria, he studied a community in Jilin (Kirin), where both Manchu and Chinese Bannermen were settled at a town called Wulakai, and eventually the Chinese Bannermen there could not be differentiated from Manchus since they were effectively Manjurified. The Han civilian population was in the process of absorbing and mixing with them when Lattimore wrote his article.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/535718 Lattimore 1933] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012092825/https://www.jstor.org/stable/535718 |date=12 October 2016 }}, p. 272.</ref>

{{Clear}}
[[File:Manchukuo map.png|thumb|Map of [[Manchukuo]] (1933–1945)]]

Around the time of [[World War I]], [[Zhang Zuolin]] established himself as a powerful [[warlord]] with influence over most of Manchuria. Zhang established an autonomous rule that nominally acknowledged the Republic of China (ROC).<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=33-34}} Japan co-opted Zhang and retained its semi-colonial economic privileges.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=34}} During Zhang's rule, the Manchurian economy grew tremendously, backed by the immigration of Chinese from other parts of China. After Zhang was defeated in the Northern Expedition and retreated back to Manchuria from Beijing, Japanese army officers assassinated him<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=41}} on 2 June 1928, in what is known as the [[Huanggutun Incident]].<ref>Edward Behr, ''ibid'', p. 168</ref> These Japanese officers sought for Japan to take direct control of Manchuria, but the Japanese government did not support the plan.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=41}} Zhang's son [[Zhang Xueliang]] became Manchuria's new ruler.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=41}} He directed public funds towards the development of Chinese industrial enterprises in the region.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=41}}

Following the [[Mukden Incident]] in 1931 and the subsequent [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]], the Japanese declared Manchuria an "independent state", and appointed the deposed Qing emperor [[Puyi]] as [[Puppet government|puppet emperor]] of [[Manchukuo]]. Under Japanese control, Manchuria was brutally run, with a systematic campaign of terror and intimidation against the local populations including arrests, organised riots and other forms of subjugation.<ref>Edward Behr, ''ibid'', p. 202</ref> Manchukuo was used by Japan as a base to invade the rest of China. At that time, hundreds of thousands of [[Japanese settlers in Manchuria|Japanese settlers arrived in Manchuria]].{{cn|date=January 2025}}

At the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, [[Joseph Stalin]] agreed that the [[Soviet Union]] would declare war on Japan within three months after [[Victory in Europe Day|Germany surrendered]],<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/yalta-conference| title =  Yalta Conference| date = November 1, 2022| website = [[history.com]]| publisher = [[History Channel]]| access-date = 2024-04-27}}</ref> and the USA and UK agreed that the Soviet Union could pursue its claimed interests in Manchuria.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=72}} Accordingly, in August the Soviet Union issued its [[declaration of war]] and launched the [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]]. Soviet forces controlled Manchuria until they left in Spring 1946.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=64}} Afterwards, [[Nationalist government|China's Nationalist government]] took control of Manchuria.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=63}} Soon afterwards, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] and the Nationalists started fighting for control over Manchuria. The communists won in the [[Liaoshen Campaign]]. With the encouragement of the Soviet Union, Manchuria was then used as a [[staging area|staging ground]] during the [[Chinese Civil War]] for the [[Chinese Communist Party]], which emerged victorious in 1949. Ambiguities in the treaties that ceded Outer Manchuria to Russia led to disputes over the political status of several islands. The Kuomintang government in Taiwan (Formosa) complained to the [[United Nations]], which passed [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 505|resolution 505]] on 1 February 1952, denouncing Soviet actions over the violations of the 1945 [[Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance]].{{cn|date=January 2025}}

=== People's Republic of China ===
The historical region of Manchuria is composed of the provinces of [[Liaoning]], [[Jilin]], and [[Heilongjiang]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Shao |first=Dan |title=Manchuria in Modern East Asia, 1600s–1949 |date=2017-10-26 |work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History |url=https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-141 |access-date=2025-01-16 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.141 |isbn=978-0-19-027772-7}}</ref>

Manchuria was a central focus of China's approach to "socialist industrialization" following the [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|founding of the People's Republic of China]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Hirata |first=Koji |title=Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism |date=2024 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-009-38227-4 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=1}} Strongly influenced by the Soviet approach to industrialization, development policy focused on heavy-industry [[State-owned enterprises of China|state-owned enterprises]], such as [[Ansteel Group|Angang]] in [[Anshan]].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=1}} The discovery and development of [[Daqing Oil Field|Daqing oil field]] made Manchuria the center of China's oil industry beginning in the 1960s.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=15}}

During the [[Third Front (China)|Third Front Construction]], the region was a major supplier of staff for the newly developed industrial bases in China's interior.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=16}}

The [[Sino-Soviet split]] led to the [[Sino-Soviet border conflict]], which ultimately resulted in an agreement. In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer [[Yinlong Island]] and one half of [[Heixiazi Island]] to China, ending an enduring border dispute.{{cn|date=January 2025}}

{{Clear}}