Editing Mali Empire (section)

=== Capital location ===
The identity of the capital city of the Mali Empire is a matter of dispute among historians. Scholars have located the capital in Niani, or somewhere on the Niger, or proposed that it changed several times, that there was no true capital, or even that it lay as far afield as the upper [[Gambia River]] in modern-day [[Senegal]].{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}} Seemingly contradictory reports written by Arab visitors, a lack of definitive archaeological evidence, and the diversity of oral traditions all contribute to this uncertainty.{{sfn|Conrad|1994}} A particular challenge lies in interpreting early Arabic manuscripts, in which, without vowel markings and diacritics, foreign names can be read in numerous different ways (e.g. Biti, Buti, Yiti, Tati).{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}} [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Leo Africanus]] both call the capital "Mali."{{sfn|Hunwick|1973|p=199}}

Early European writers such as [[Maurice Delafosse]] believed that [[Niani, Guinea|Niani]], a city on what is now the border between Guinea and Mali, was the capital for most of the empire's history, and this notion has taken hold in the popular imagination.<ref>Ki-Zerbo, 57.</ref> [[Djibril Tamsir Niane]], a Guinean historian, has been a forceful advocate of this position in recent decades. The identification of Niani as imperial capital is rooted in an (possibly erroneous) interpretation of the Arab traveler al Umari's work, as well as some oral histories. Extensive archaeological digs have shown that the area was an important trade and manufacturing center in the 15th century, but no firm evidence of royal residence has come to light.{{sfn|Conrad|1994|p=369}}

Niani's reputation as an imperial capital may derive from its importance in the late imperial period, when the Songhai Empire to the northeast pushed Mali back to the Manding heartland. Several 21st century historians have firmly rejected Niani as a capital candidate based on a lack of archaeological evidence of significant trade activity, clearly described by Arab visitors, particularly during the 14th century, Mali's golden age.{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}} In fact, there is a conspicuous absence of archaeological samples of any kind from Niani dated to the late 13th through early 15th centuries, suggesting that Niani may have been uninhabited during the heyday of the Mali Empire.{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}}

Various sources cite several other cities as capitals of the Mali Empire, some in competition with the Niani hypothesis and others addressing different time periods. A city called Dieriba or Dioliba is sometimes mentioned as the capital or main urban center of the province of Mande in the years before Sundiata, that was later abandoned.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=128}}

Many oral histories point to a town called Dakajalan as the original home of the Keita clan and Sundiata's childhood home and base of operations during the war against the Soso. It may have been located close to modern [[Kangaba]]. Mande bards in the region speak of the Dakajalan site, containing Sundiata's grave, as sacrosanct.{{sfn|Conrad|1994|p=373}} Kangaba became the last refuge of the Keita royal family after the collapse of the Mali Empire, and so has for centuries been associated with Sundiata in the cultural imagination of Mande peoples. If Dakajalan was, in fact, situated near Kangaba, this may also have contributed to their conflation, beginning with Delafosse's speculation that the latter may have begun as a suburb of the former.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=129}}

According to Jules Vidal and Levtzion, citing oral histories from Kangaba and Keyla, another onetime capital was Manikoro or Mali-Kura, founded after the destruction of Niani.{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=128-129}}

Parallel to this debate, many scholars have argued that the Mali Empire may not have had a permanent "capital" in the sense that the word is used today, and historically was used in the Mediterranean world. Rather, authority would rest with the mansa and his court, wherever he went. Therefore,  Arabic visitors may have assigned the "capital" label merely to whatever major city the mansa was based out of at the time of their visit.{{sfn|Conrad|1994|p=365}} It has been suggested that the name given in the Arabic sources for the capital of Mali is derived the Manding word "bambi", meaning "[[dais]]", and as such refers to the "seat of government" in general rather than being the name of a specific city.{{sfn|Hunwick|1973}} Such impermanent capitals are a historically widespread phenomenon, having occurred in other parts of Africa such as [[Ethiopia]], as well as outside Africa, such as in the [[Holy Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Haour|2005}}