Editing Languages of Africa (section)

==Language in Africa==
Throughout the long multilingual history of the African continent, African languages have been subject to phenomena like language contact, language expansion, language shift and language death. A case in point is the [[Bantu expansion]], in which Bantu-speaking peoples expanded over most of [[Sub-Equatorial Africa]], intermingling with Khoi-San speaking peoples from much of [[Southeast Africa]] and [[Southern Africa]] and other peoples from [[Central Africa]]. Another example is the Arab expansion in the 7th century, which led to the extension of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] from its homeland in Asia, into much of North Africa and the Horn of Africa.

[[Trade language]]s are another age-old phenomenon in the African linguistic landscape. Cultural and linguistic innovations spread along trade routes and languages of peoples dominant in trade developed into languages of wider communication ([[lingua franca]]). Of particular importance in this respect are [[Berber language|Berber]] (North and West Africa), [[Dioula language|Jula]] (western West Africa), [[Fula language|Fulfulde]] (West Africa), [[Hausa language|Hausa]] (West Africa), [[Lingala language|Lingala]] (Congo), [[Swahili language|Swahili]] (Southeast Africa), [[Somali language|Somali]] (Horn of Africa) and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (North Africa and Horn of Africa).

After gaining independence, many African countries, in the search for national unity, selected one language, generally the former Indo-European colonial language, to be used in government and education. However, in recent years, African countries have become increasingly supportive of maintaining linguistic diversity. Language policies that are being developed nowadays are mostly aimed at multilingualism. This presents a methodological complication when collecting data in Africa and limited literature exists. An analysis of [[Afrobarometer]] [[public opinion]] survey data of 36 countries suggested that survey interviewers and respondents could engage in various linguistic behaviors, such as [[code-switching]] during the survey.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lau |first=Charles |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |chapter=Language differences between interviewers and respondents in African surveys (Chapter 5) |title=The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |date=2020-04-30 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=101–115 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Moreover, some African countries have been considering removing their official former Indo-European colonial languages, like [[Mali]] and [[Burkina Faso]] which removed French as an official language in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=AfricaNews |date= 26 July 2023|title=Mali drops French as official language |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/07/26/mali-drops-french-as-official-language/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=Africanews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AfricaNews |date=2023-12-07 |title=Burkina abandons French as an official language |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/12/07/burkina-abandons-french-as-an-official-language/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=Africanews |language=en}}</ref>  

===Official languages===
{{see also|Languages of the African Union}}
[[File:Official languages in Africa.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Official languages in Africa:
{| cellpadding="0"
|-
| {{legend|#FF8C00|[[Afrikaans]]}}  || {{legend|#8EB423|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}
|-
| {{legend|#19822D|[[Arabic]]}} || {{legend|#DAC716|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]}}
|-
| {{legend|#C35A91|[[English language|English]]}} || {{legend|#55433B|[[Swahili language|Swahili]]}}
|-
| {{legend|#415096|[[French language|French]]}} || {{legend|#000000|other African languages}}
|}]]
;Afroasiatic
*Berber (Amazigh):
**[[Standard Moroccan Amazigh]] in [[Morocco]]
**[[Standard Algerian Berber]] in [[Algeria]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Algeria reinstates term limit and recognises Berber language |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-35515769 |work=BBC News}}</ref> 
**[[Tamasheq language|Tamasheq]] in Mali<ref name=":0">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=29 September 2017 |title=JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI |url=https://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2017/mali-jo-2017-39.pdf |access-date=26 July 2023 |website=sgg-mali.ml |quote=Langues nationales : langues considérées comme propres à une nation ou à un pays. Selon la Loi n°96- 049 du 23 août 1996, les langues nationales du Mali sont : le bamanankan (bambara), le bomu (bobo), le bozo (bozo), le dTgTsT (dogon), le fulfulde (peul), le hasanya (maure), le mamara (miniyanka), le maninkakan (malinké) le soninke (sarakolé), le soKoy (songhoï), le syenara (sénoufo), le tamasayt (tamasheq), le xaasongaxanKo (khassonké).}}</ref>
**[[Tawellemmet language|Tawellemet]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*Chadic:
**[[Hausa language|Hausa]] in [[Niger]]
*Cushitic:
**[[Afar language|Afar]] in [[Ethiopia]]
**[[Oromo language|Oromo]] in Ethiopia and Kenya
**[[Somali language|Somali]] in [[Somalia]], Ethiopia, [[Kenya]], and [[Djibouti]] 
*Semitic:
**[[Amharic]] in Ethiopia
**[[Arabic]] in [[Algeria]], [[Chad]], [[Comoros]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]],<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritania/ CIA – The World Factbook].</ref> [[Morocco]], [[Somalia]],<ref name="Charter">According to article 7 of [http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/countries/docs/charterfeb04.pdf ''The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218004011/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/countries/docs/charterfeb04.pdf|date=18 December 2008}}: "The official languages of the Somali Republic shall be Somali (Maay and Maxaatiri) and Arabic. The second languages of the Transitional Federal Government shall be English and Italian".</ref> [[Sudan]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Zanzibar]] ([[Tanzania]])
***[[Hassaniya Arabic]] in [[Mali]]<ref name=":0" />
**[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] in Ethiopia and [[Eritrea]]

;Austronesian
*[[Malagasy language|Malagasy]] in [[Madagascar]]

;Ngbandi creole
*[[Sango language|Sango]] in the [[Central African Republic]]

;French Creole
*[[Seychelles Creole]] in [[Seychelles]]

;Indo-European
*[[Afrikaans]] in [[South Africa]]
*[[English language|English]] in [[Ghana]], [[Gambia]], [[Uganda]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Kenya]], [[South Africa]], [[Liberia]], [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Namibia]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sudan]], [[Tanzania]], [[Eswatini]], [[Lesotho]], and [[Mauritius]].
*[[French language|French]] in [[Benin]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Comoros]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Djibouti]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea]], [[Madagascar]], [[Rwanda]], [[Senegal]], [[Seychelles]], and [[Togo]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spencer |first=Erika Hope |title=Research Guides: France & French Collections at the Library of Congress: Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://guides.loc.gov/french-collections/francophone-studies/sub-saharan-africa |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=guides.loc.gov |language=en}}</ref>
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] in [[Angola]], [[Mozambique]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Cape Verde]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Fehn |first=Anne-Maria |title=African Linguistics in Official Portuguese- and Spanish-Speaking Africa |date=2019 |work=A History of African Linguistics |pages=189–204 |editor-last=Wolff |editor-first=H. Ekkehard |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/history-of-african-linguistics/african-linguistics-in-official-portuguese-and-spanishspeaking-africa/9ED5EF68F7DE7E253FE57BE4AAF2AF0A |access-date=2024-03-28 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-41797-6}}</ref>
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] in [[Equatorial Guinea]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=ABOUT EQUATORIAL GUINEA {{!}} Equatorial Guinea Embassy USA |url=https://www.egembassydc.com/about-equatorial-guinea |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=EG Embassy USA |language=en}}</ref>

;Niger-Congo
*[[Bambara language|Bambara]] in [[Mali]]<ref name=":0" />
*[[Bobo language|Bobo]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Bozo language|Bozo]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Chewa language|Chewa]] in [[Malawi]] and [[Zimbabwe]]
*[[Comorian language|Comorian]] in the [[Comoros]]
*[[Dogon languages|Dogon]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Fula language|Fula]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Kassonke language|Kassonke]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Kikongo language|Kongo]] in [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Gabon]], and [[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Kinyarwanda]] in [[Rwanda]]
*[[Kirundi]] in [[Burundi]]
*[[Maninka language|Maninke]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Minyanka language|Minyanka]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Senufo languages|Senufo]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Sesotho language|Sesotho]] in [[Lesotho]], [[South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe]]
*[[Tswana language|Setswana]] in [[Botswana]] and South Africa
*[[Shona language|Shona]], [[Northern Ndebele language|Sindebele]] in [[Zimbabwe]]
*[[Sepedi]] in South Africa
*[[Soninke language|Soninke]] in Mali<ref name=":0" />
*[[Southern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] in South Africa<ref>[http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm "The languages of South Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304001836/http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm |date=4 March 2011 }}. ''southafrica.info''.</ref>
*[[Swahili language|Swahili]] in [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Rwanda]] and [[Uganda]]
*[[Swazi language|Swati]] in [[Eswatini|Eswatini (Swaziland)]] and [[South Africa]]
*[[Xitsonga|Tsonga]] in South Africa
*[[Tshivenda|Venda]] in South Africa
*[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] in South Africa
*[[Zulu language|Zulu]] in South Africa

;Nilo-Saharan
*[[Songhay languages|Songhay]] in [[Mali]]<ref name=":0" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Language
!Family
!Official status per country
|-
|Afar
| rowspan="8" |Afroasiatic
|Ethiopia, Djibouti (national)
|-
|Amharic
|Ethiopia
|-
|Arabic
|Algeria, Comoros, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Somalia, Sudan 
|-
|Berber
|Algeria, Morocco
|-
|Hausa
|Niger, Nigeria (national)
|-
|Oromo
|Ethiopia<ref>{{cite web |title=ETHIOPIA TO ADD 4 MORE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES TO FOSTER UNITY |url=http://venturesafrica.com/ethiopia-to-add-4-more-official-languages-to-foster-unity/ |website=Ventures Africa |date=4 March 2020 |publisher=Ventures |access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ethiopia is adding four more official languages to Amharic as political instability mounts |url=https://www.nazret.com/2020/03/07/ethiopia-is-adding-four-more-official-languages-to-amharic-as-political-instability-mounts/ |website=Nazret |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817225007/https://www.nazret.com/2020/03/07/ethiopia-is-adding-four-more-official-languages-to-amharic-as-political-instability-mounts/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Shaban |first1=Abdurahman |title=One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |agency=Africa News |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215231030/https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// }}</ref> 
|-
|Somali
|Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti (national)
|-
|Tigrinya
|Ethiopia, Eritrea (national)
|-
|Malagasy
|Austronesian
|Madagascar
|-
|Seychelles Creole
|French Creole
|Seychelles
|-
|Afrikaans
|Indo-European
|South Africa
|-
|Sango
|Ngbandi creole
|Central African Republic
|-
|Chewa
| rowspan="17" |Niger-Congo
|Malawi, Zimbabwe
|-
|Comorian
|Comoros
|-
|Kikongo
|Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo
|-
|Kinyarwanda
|Rwanda
|-
|Kirundi
|Burundi
|-
|Ndebele
|South Africa
|-
|Sepedi
|South Africa
|-
|Sesotho
|Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe
|-
|Setswana
|Botswana, South Africa
|-
|Shona
|Zimbabwe
|-
|Sindebele
|Zimbabwe
|-
|Swahili
|Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda
|-
|Swati
|Eswatini, South Africa
|-
|Tsonga
|Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South Africa
|-
|Venda
|South Africa, Zimbabwe
|-
|Xhosa
|South Africa
|-
|Zulu
|South Africa
|}

===Cross-border languages===
The colonial borders established by European powers following the [[Berlin Conference (1884)|Berlin Conference]] in 1884–1885 divided a great many ethnic groups and African language speaking communities. This can cause divergence of a language on either side of a border (especially when the official languages are different), for example, in orthographic standards. Some notable cross-border languages include [[Berber languages|Berber]] (which stretches across much of North Africa and some parts of West Africa), [[Kikongo language|Kikongo]] (that stretches across northern Angola, western and coastal Democratic Republic of the Congo, and western and coastal Republic of the Congo), [[Somali language|Somali]] (stretches across most of the Horn of Africa), Swahili (spoken in the African Great Lakes region), [[Fula language|Fula]] (in the Sahel and West Africa) and [[Luo languages|Luo]] (in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, South Sudan and Sudan).

Some prominent Africans such as former [[Mali]]an president and former [[Chairperson of the African Union Commission|Chairman of the African Commission]], [[Alpha Oumar Konaré]], have referred to cross-border languages as a factor that can promote African unity.<ref>[http://www.acalan.org/ African languages for Africa's development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524135600/http://www.acalan.org/ |date=24 May 2006 }} ACALAN (French & English).</ref>

===Language change and planning===
Language is not static in Africa any more than on other continents.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} In addition to the (likely modest) impact of borders, there are also cases of [[dialect levelling]] (such as in [[Igbo language|Igbo]] and probably many others), [[Koiné language|koinés]] (such as [[N'Ko language|N'Ko]] and possibly [[Runyakitara language|Runyakitara]]) and emergence of new dialects (such as [[Sheng (linguistics)|Sheng]]). In some countries, there are official efforts to develop [[Standard language|standardized language]] versions.

There are also many less widely spoken languages that may be considered [[endangered language]]s.

===Demographics===
{{Further|Demographics of Africa}}
Of the 1 billion Africans (in 2009), about 17 percent speak an [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic dialect]].{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} About 10 percent speak [[Swahili language|Swahili]],{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} the lingua franca of Southeast Africa; about 5 percent speak a [[Berber languages|Berber]] dialect;{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} and about 5 percent speak [[Hausa language|Hausa]], which serves as a lingua franca in much of the Sahel. Other large West African languages are [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Akan language|Akan]] and [[Fula language|Fula]]. Major Horn of Africa languages are [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Amharic language|Amharic]] and [[Oromo language|Oromo]]. [[Lingala]] is important in Central Africa. Important South African languages are [[Sotho language|Sotho]], [[Tswana language|Tswana]], [[Northern Sotho language|Pedi]], [[Venda language|Venda]], [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]], [[Swazi language|Swazi]], [[Southern Ndebele language|Southern Ndebele]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and [[Afrikaans]].<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |title=Tongues under threat |date=22 January 2011 |page=58}}</ref>

French, English, and Portuguese are important languages in Africa due to colonialism. About 320 million,<ref>[https://www.odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/sites/odsef.fss.ulaval.ca/files/uploads/Pr%C3%A9sentation_FRANCOSCOPE_2023-03-15_Finale.pdf 327 millions de francophones dans le monde en 2023] odsef.fss.ulaval.ca (in French)</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Verdeau | first=Paul | title=En 2023, 327 millions de personnes parlent français dans le monde, dont près de la moitié en Afrique | website=RTBF | date=20 March 2023 | url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/en-2023-429-millions-de-personnes-parlent-francais-dans-le-monde-dont-pres-de-la-moitie-en-afrique-11169856 | language=fr | access-date=27 November 2023}}</ref> 240 million and 35 million Africans, respectively, speak them as either native or secondary languages. Portuguese has become the national language of Angola and São Tomé and Príncipe, and Portuguese is the official language of Mozambique.