Editing Khmer language (section)

===Morphology===
Modern Khmer is an [[isolating language]], which means that it uses little [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. There is some [[Morphological derivation|derivation]] by means of [[prefixes]] and [[infixes]], but this is a remnant of Old Khmer and not always productive in the modern language.<ref name="cc">{{cite book|title=Colloquial Cambodian: A Complete Language Course |author= [[David A. Smyth|David Smyth]]|year=1995|publisher=Routledge (UK)|isbn=978-0-415-10006-9}}</ref> Khmer morphology is evidence of a historical process through which the language was, at some point in the past, changed from being an [[agglutinative language]] to adopting an isolating typology.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Karnchana|first1=Nacaskul|title=The syllabic and morphological structure of Cambodian words|journal=[[Mon-Khmer Studies]]|date=1978|volume=3|pages=183–200|url=https://sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/7:183-200.pdf|access-date=6 February 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011131733/https://sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/7:183-200.pdf|archive-date=11 October 2017}}</ref> Affixed forms are [[Lexicalization|lexicalized]] and cannot be used productively to form new words.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|311}} Below are some of the most common affixes with examples as given by Huffman.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|312–316}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Affix !! Function !! Word !! Meaning !! Affixed Word !! Meaning
|-
| prefixed {{IPA|[pʰ]}} || causation || {{IPA|[ɗac]}}<br /> {{IPA|[ɗaəm]}} || "broke, torn"<br />"origin" || {{IPA|[pʰɗac]}}<br />{{IPA|[pʰɗaəm]}} || "to tear apart"<br />"to originate (trans.)"
|-
| prefixed {{IPA|[rɔː]}} || derives adjectives<br />nominalization || {{IPA|[lut]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɓaŋ]}} || "to extinguish"<br />"to hide" || {{IPA|[rɔːlut]}}<br />{{IPA|[rɔːɓaŋ]}} || "extinguished"<br />"a screen, shade"
|-
| prefixed {{IPA|[prɑː]}} || reciprocity || {{IPA|[kʰam]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɗouc]}} || "to bite"<br />"similar" || {{IPA|[prɑːkʰam]}}<br />{{IPA|[prɑːɗouc]}} || "to bite each other"<br />"to compare"
|-
| prefixed {{IPA|[ɓɑm]}}, {{IPA|[ɓɑn]}}, {{IPA|[ɓɑŋ]}} || causation || {{IPA|[ɓaek]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɗaə]}}<br />{{IPA|[riən]}} || "to break (intrans.)"<br />"to walk"<br />"to study, learn" || {{IPA|[ɓɑmɓaek]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɓɑnɗaə]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɓɑŋriən]}}  || "to cause to break"<br />"to take for a walk"<br />"to teach"
|-
| infixed {{IPA|[ɑm]}} || causation || {{IPA|[sʔaːt]}}<br />{{IPA|[slap]}} || "to be clean"<br />"to die" || {{IPA|[sɑmʔaːt]}}<br />{{IPA|[sɑmlap]}} || "to clean"<br />"to kill"
|-
| infixed {{IPA|[ɑm(n)]}}, {{IPA|[um(n)]}} || nominalization || {{IPA|[ɗaə]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɗəŋ]}}<br />{{IPA|[cɨə]}} || "to walk"<br />"to know (something)"<br />"to believe" || {{IPA|[ɗɑmnaə]}}<br />{{IPA|[ɗɑmnəŋ]}}<br />{{IPA|[cumnɨə]}} || "a trip"<br />"information"<br />"belief"
|}

[[Compound (linguistics)|Compounding]] in Khmer is a common derivational process that takes two forms, coordinate compounds and repetitive compounds. Coordinate compounds join two [[Bound and unbound morphemes|unbound morphemes]] (independent words) of similar meaning to form a compound signifying a concept more general than either word alone.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|296}} Coordinate compounds join either two nouns or two verbs. Repetitive compounds, one of the most productive derivational features of Khmer, use [[reduplication]] of an entire word to derive words whose meaning depends on the class of the reduplicated word.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|185}} A repetitive compound of a noun indicates plurality or generality while that of an adjectival verb could mean either an intensification or plurality.

Coordinate compounds:<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|296–297}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
| [ʔəwpuk] + [mɗaːj] ⇒ [ʔəwpuk.mɗaːj]
| father {} mother {} parents
|}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
| [ɗək] + [nɔəm] ⇒ [ɗəknŏəm]
| {to transport} {} {to bring} {} {to lead}
|}}

Repetitive compounds:<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|185–185}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
| [cʰap] ⇒ [cʰapcʰap]
| fast {} {very fast, quickly}
|}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
| [srəj] ⇒ [srəjsrəj]
| women {} {women, women in general}
|}}

====Nouns and pronouns====
Khmer [[noun]]s do not inflect for [[grammatical gender]] or [[grammatical number|singular/plural]]. There are no [[Article (grammar)|articles]], but indefiniteness is often expressed by the word for "one" ({{lang|km|មួយ}} {{IPA|[muəj]}}) following the noun as in {{lang|km|ឆ្កែមួយ}} ({{IPA|[cʰkae muəj]}} "a dog"). Plurality can be marked by [[postnominal]] particles, numerals, or reduplication of a following adjective, which, although similar to intensification, is usually not ambiguous due to context.<ref name=msc />

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[cʰkae craən]|dog many|"many dogs"}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[cʰkae piː]|dog two|"two dogs"}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[cʰkae tʰom tʰom]|dog large large|'large dogs'}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

[[Classifier (linguistics)|Classifying particles]] are used after numerals, but are not always obligatory as they are in [[Thai grammar|Thai]] or [[Chinese classifier|Chinese]], for example, and are often dropped in colloquial speech. Khmer nouns are divided into two groups: mass nouns, which take classifiers; and specific, nouns, which do not. The overwhelming majority are mass nouns.<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|67–68}}

{{interlinear|indent=3
|[kʰmawɗaj piː ɗaəm]
|pencil two {CLF [long cylindrical object]}
|"two pencils"}}

Possession is colloquially expressed by word order. The possessor is placed after the thing that is possessed.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|160}} Alternatively, in more complex sentences or when emphasis is required, a possessive construction using the word {{lang|km|របស់}} ({{IPA|[rɔːbɑh] ~ [lə.bɑh]}}, "property, object") may be employed. In formal and literary contexts, the possessive particle {{lang|km|នៃ}} ({{IPA|[nɨj]}}) is used:<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|358}}

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[puəʔmaːʔ kʰɲom]|friend I|"my friend"}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[puəʔmaːʔ rɔːɓɑh kʰɲom]|friend property I|"my friend"}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[puəʔmaːʔ nɨj kʰɲom]|friend of I|"my friend"}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

[[Pronoun]]s are subject to a complicated system of social register, the choice of pronoun depending on the perceived relationships between speaker, audience and referent (see [[#Social registers|Social registers]] below). Khmer exhibits [[pronoun avoidance]], so kinship terms, nicknames and proper names are often used instead of pronouns (including for the first person) among intimates. Subject pronouns are frequently [[null-subject language|dropped]] in colloquial conversation.<ref name=msc />

Adjectives, verbs and verb phrases may be made into nouns by the use of [[nominalization]] particles. Three of the more common particles used to create nouns are {{IPA|[kaː]}}, {{IPA|[seckdəj]}}, and {{IPA|[pʰiəp]}}.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|45–48}} These particles are prefixed most often to verbs to form abstract nouns. The latter, derived from Sanskrit, also occurs as a suffix in fixed forms borrowed from Sanskrit and Pali such as {{IPA|[sokʰapʰiəp]}} ("health") from {{IPA|[sok]}} ("to be healthy").<ref name=KhDict />

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[kaː rŭəhnɨw]|NMLZ {to live}|'life'}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[sec {kdəj deik}]|NMLZ {to lie down}|'[the act of] lying down'}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|[pʰiəp {sɑːm rum'}]|NMLZ appropriate|'appropriateness'<ref name=Haiman />}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

====Adjectives and adverbs====
[[Adjective]]s, [[demonstrative]]s and [[numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] follow the noun they modify. Adverbs likewise follow the verb. Morphologically, adjectives and adverbs are not distinguished, with many words often serving either function. Adjectives are also employed as verbs as Khmer sentences rarely use a [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]].<ref name=ModSpok />

[[Comparison (grammar)|Degrees of comparison]] are constructed syntactically. [[Comparative]]s are expressed using the word {{lang|km|ជាង}} {{IPA|/ciəŋ/}}: "A X {{IPA|/ciəŋ/}} [B]" (A is more X [than B]). The most common way to express [[superlative]]s is with {{lang|km|ជាងគេ}} {{IPA|/ciəŋ keː/}}: "A X {{IPA|/ciəŋ keː/}}" (A is the most X).<ref name=msc>Huffman, F. E., Promchan, C., & Lambert, C.-R. T. (1970). ''Modern spoken Cambodian''. New Haven: Yale University Press. {{ISBN|0-300-01315-9}}</ref> Intensity is also expressed syntactically, similar to other languages of the region, by [[reduplication]] or with the use of [[intensifier]]s.<ref name=msc />

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|/srəj nuh sʔaːt/|girl DEM pretty|'That girl is pretty.'}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|/srəj nuh sʔaːt sʔaːt/|girl DEM pretty pretty|'That girl is very pretty.'}}
{{Col-3}}
{{interlinear|/srəj nuh sʔaːt nah/|girl DEM pretty very|'That girl is very pretty.'}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

====Verbs====
As is typical of most East Asian languages,<ref>[http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-927311-1.pdf East and Southeast Asian Languages: A First Look] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120111832/http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-927311-1.pdf |date=2012-11-20 }} at Oxford University Press Online</ref> Khmer verbs do not inflect at all; [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[Linguistic modality|mood]] can be expressed using auxiliary verbs, particles (such as {{lang|km|កំពុង}} {{IPA|/kəmpuŋ/}}, placed before a verb to express [[continuous aspect]]) and adverbs (such as "yesterday", "earlier", "tomorrow"), or may be understood from context. [[Serial verb construction]] is quite common.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|253}}

Khmer verbs are a relatively [[open class (linguistics)|open class]] and can be divided into two types, main verbs and auxiliary verbs.<ref name=Haiman />{{rp|254}} Huffman defined a Khmer verb as "any word that can be (negated)",<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|56}} and further divided main verbs into three classes.

[[Transitive verb]]s are verbs that may be followed by a [[direct object]]:

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{interlinear|/kʰɲom ɲam ɓaj/|I eat rice|"I eat rice."}}
{{Col-2}}
{{interlinear|/kʰɲom tɨɲ ɓaːrəj/|I buy cigarettes|"I buy cigarettes."}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

[[Intransitive verb]]s are verbs that can not be followed by an object:

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{interlinear|/kʰɲom ɗaə tɨw pʰsaː/|I walk DIR market|"I walk to the market."}}
{{Col-2}}
{{interlinear|/ʔaɲcəɲ ʔɑŋkuj/|{to invite} {to sit}|"Please sit."}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>

Adjectival verbs are a word class that has no equivalent in English. When modifying a noun or verb, they function as adjectives or adverbs, respectively, but they may also be used as main verbs equivalent to English "be + ''adjective''".

<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
; {{smallcaps|Adjective:}}
{{interlinear|/proh <u>sɑŋ.haː</u>/|boy <u>handsome</u>|"handsome boy"}}
{{Col-3}}
; {{smallcaps|Adverb:}}
{{interlinear|/proh nuh {tʰʋəː kaː} <u>lʔɑː</u>/|boy DEM {to work} <u>good</u>|"That boy works well."}}
{{Col-3}}
; {{smallcaps|Verb:}}
{{interlinear|/proh nuh <u>sɑŋ.haː</u>/|boy DEM <u>handsome</u>|"That boy is handsome."<ref name=ModSpok />{{rp|56}}}}
{{Col-end}}
</blockquote>