Editing Island (section)

== Humans and islands ==

=== History of exploration ===
{{See also|Sea#Humans and the sea}}

[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Chronological dispersal of the [[Austronesian peoples]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Geoffrey K. |title=[[Encyclopedia of Life Sciences]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0470016176 |chapter=Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2}}</ref>]]

The first evidence of humans colonizing islands probably occurred in the [[Paleolithic]] era, 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. Reaching the [[Indonesian islands]] of [[Flores]] and [[Timor]] would have required crossing distances of water of at least {{cvt|29|km}}.<ref name=":9">{{Citation |last1=Keegan |first1=William F. |title=2 - Colonization of Islands by Humans: A Biogeographical Perspective |date=January 1, 1987 |work=Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory |pages=49–92 |editor-last=Schiffer |editor-first=Michael B. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780120031108500050 |access-date=July 3, 2024 |place=San Diego |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-003110-8.50005-0 |isbn=978-0-12-003110-8 |last2=Diamond |first2=Jared M.}}</ref> Some islands, such as [[Honshu]], were probably connected to the mainland with a [[land bridge]] that allowed humans to colonize it before it became an island.<ref name=":9" />

The first people to [[colonize]] distant oceanic islands were the [[Polynesians]].<ref name=":10" /> Many of the previous island settlements required traveling distances of less than {{cvt|100|km}}, whereas Polynesians may have traveled {{convert|2000|-|3200|km|mi|abbr=on}} to settle islands such as [[Tahiti]].<ref name=":9" /> They would send navigators to sail the ocean without the aid of [[navigational instruments]] to discover new islands for settlement.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=February 15, 2000 |title=Polynesia's Genius Navigators |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/polynesia-genius-navigators/ |access-date=June 28, 2024 |website=www.pbs.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Gatty |first=Harold |url=https://archive.org/details/the-raft-book/page/n5/mode/2up |title=The Raft Book |publisher=George Grady Press |year=1943 |edition=2nd |location=New York City |pages=10,48,54-56}}</ref> Between 1100 and 800 BC, Polynesians sailed East from [[New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]] and reached the islands that make up the modern-day [[Fiji]] and [[Samoa]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiCCMB6xQJoC&dq=ancient+pacific+exploration&pg=PR13 |title=We, the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific |date=May 1, 1994 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1582-0 |page=8 |edition=Second |language=en}}</ref> The furthest extent of this migration would be [[Easter Island]] in the East, and [[New Zealand]] in the South, with New Zealand's first settlements between 1250 and 1300.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2, 2023 |title=Pacific voyaging and discovery |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/encounters/polynesian-voyaging |access-date=June 26, 2024 |website=New Zealand History |publisher=Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage}}</ref> 

Historians have sought to understand why some remote islands have always been uninhabited, while others, especially in the [[Pacific Ocean]], have long been populated by humans.<ref name=":9" /> Generally, larger islands are more likely to be able to sustain humans and thus are more likely to have been settled. Small islands that cannot sustain populations on their own can still be habitable if they are within a "commuting" distance to an island that has enough resources to be sustainable.<ref name=":9" /> The presence of an island is marked by [[seabirds]], differences in cloud and weather patterns, as well as changes in the direction of waves.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":10" /> It is also possible for human populations to have gone extinct on islands, evidenced by explorers finding islands that show evidence of habitation but no life.<ref name=":9" />

Not all islands were or are inhabited by maritime cultures.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> In the past, some societies were found to have lost their seafaring ability over time, such as the case of the [[Canary Islands]], which were occupied by an [[indigenous people]] since the island's first discovery in the first century until being conquered by the [[Spanish Empire]] in 1496.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Cornwall |first=Warren |date=February 8, 2024 |title=A thousand years of solitude |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/humans-survive-alone-1000-years-desert-islands-off-africa |access-date=June 29, 2024 |journal=Science|volume=383 |issue=6683 |pages=580–584 |doi=10.1126/science.ado5092 |pmid=38330134 |bibcode=2024Sci...383..580C }}</ref> It has been hypothesized that since the inhabitants had little incentive for [[trade]] and had little to any contact with the mainland, they had no need for boats.<ref name=":8" /> 

The motivation for island exploration has been the subject of research and debate. Some early historians previously argued that early island colonization was unintentional, perhaps by a raft being swept out to sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Michael I. |last2=Condie |first2=Scott A. |last3=O’Connor |first3=Sue |last4=O’Grady |first4=Damien |last5=Reepmeyer |first5=Christian |last6=Ulm |first6=Sean |last7=Zega |first7=Mojca |last8=Saltré |first8=Frédérik |last9=Bradshaw |first9=Corey J. A. |date=June 17, 2019 |title=Early human settlement of Sahul was not an accident |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=8220 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-42946-9 |pmid=31209234 |issn=2045-2322|pmc=6579762 |bibcode=2019NatSR...9.8220B }}</ref> Others compare the motivations of Polynesian and similar explorers with those of [[Christopher Columbus]], the explorer who sailed westward over the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in search of an alternate route to the [[East Indies]].<ref name=":9" /> These historians theorize that successful explorers were rewarded with recognition and wealth, leading others to attempt possibly dangerous expeditions to discover more islands, usually with poor results.<ref name=":9" />

=== Lifestyle ===
About 10% of the world's population lives on islands.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Ma |first=Guoqing |date=October 16, 2020 |title=Islands and the world from an anthropological perspective |journal=International Journal of Anthropology and Ethnology |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12 |doi=10.1186/s41257-020-00038-x |doi-access=free |issn=2366-1003}}</ref> The study of the culture of islands is known as [[island studies]]. The interest in the study of islands is due to their unique cultures and natural environments that differ from mainland cultures.<ref name=":11" /> This is for a few reasons: First, the obvious political and geographic isolation from mainland cultures.<ref name=":11" /> Second, unique restraints on resources and ecology creating marine-focused cultures with a focus on [[fishing]] and sailing.<ref name=":11" /> Third, a lasting historical and political significance of islands.<ref name=":11" />
[[File:Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), Malaysia.JPG|alt=Three green fruits with many small dimples hanging from a tree. It is a bright and sunny day.|thumb|A breadfruit tree in [[Malaysia]], used in Polynesia for making an edible breadfruit paste.]]
[[File:Cultivated Colocasia esculenta.jpg|alt=An orderly square of green leafy plants in the sun.|thumb|Cultivated taro plants, a [[staple food]] for many island cultures.]]

==== Diet ====
The Polynesian diet got most of its protein from fishing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dewailly |first=Eric |date=2008 |title=Fish consumption and health in French Polynesia |url=https://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/APJCN/17/1/86.pdf |journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=17 |issue=1|pages=86–93 |pmid=18364332 }}</ref> Polynesians were known to fish close to shore, as well as in deep water. It was reported that [[Rapa Nui people]] were known to fish as far as {{cvt|500|km}} from shore at coral reefs.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=May 8, 2024 |title=Polynesian culture - Kinship, Social Hierarchy {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Polynesia/Kinship-and-social-hierarchy |access-date=July 5, 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Spearfishing|Spear]], [[Fishing line|line]], and [[Fishing net|net]] fishing were all used,<ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=Tiare Tuuhia |first=Hakai |date=November 10, 2023 |title=How an Ancient Practice Aids Marine Conservation |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/rahui-and-the-art-of-marine-conservation-180983179/ |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> to catch [[tuna]] as well as [[sharks]] and [[stingrays]].<ref name=":12" /> Island cultures also cultivate native and non-native crops.<ref name=":8" /> Polynesians grew the native [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]], [[taro]], [[breadfruit]], [[banana]], [[coconut]] and other fruits and vegetables.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haden |first=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sH7DEAAAQBAJ&dq=foods+grown+on+islands&pg=PP1 |title=Food Culture in the Pacific Islands |date=August 10, 2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-34493-0 |pages=59–67 |language=en}}</ref> Different island climates made different resources more important, such as the Hawaiian islands being home to [[irrigated]] fields of taro,<ref name=":25" /> whereas in some islands, like Tahiti, breadfruit was more widely cultivated and [[fermented]] in order to preserve it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The island fruit that caused a mutiny |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180517-the-island-fruit-that-caused-a-mutiny |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> There is archeological evidence that Canary Islanders would chew the roots of [[ferns]] for sustenance, a practice that wore heavily on their [[molars]].<ref name=":8" /> These islanders would also grow [[barley]] and raised livestock such as [[goats]].<ref name=":8" />

=== Island nations and territories ===
{{Further|Island country}}
Many island nations have little land and a restricted set of natural resources. However, these nations control some of the largest [[fisheries]] in the world, deposits of [[copper]], [[gold]], and [[nickel]], as well as [[Petroleum reservoir|oil deposits]]. The natural beauty of island nations also makes them a magnet for [[tourism]]. Islands also have geopolitical value for [[Naval base|naval bases]], [[Nuclear weapons testing|weapons testing]], and general territorial control. One such example is [[French Polynesia]], a territory that receives substantial military expenditure and aid from France.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fairbairn |first=Te'o I.J. |title=The Pacific Islands: Politics, Economics, and International Relations |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-86638-140-6 |pages=1–11}}</ref> Three others, [[Palau]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], and the [[Marshall Islands]], are island nations of the Pacific region that maintain a defense, aid, and immigration agreement with the United States called a [[Compact of Free Association]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. passes renewed Compact with Marshall Islands, other Pacific nations |url=https://www.kuaf.com/show/ozarks-at-large/2024-03-13/u-s-passes-renewed-compact-with-marshall-islands-other-pacific-nations |access-date=2025-01-31 |website=KUAF 91.3 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Colonization ====
[[File:Leaving-bikini.jpg|alt=A black and white photo of several people boarding a ship carrying their belongings.|thumb|Residents of [[Bikini Atoll]] leaving due to nuclear testing.]]
Since the first discoveries of Polynesian, [[Micronesia|Micronesian]], and other islands by Westerners, these nations have been the subject of colonization.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=March 18, 2014 |title=Historical Background: Colonization of Pacific Islands |url=https://geriatrics.stanford.edu/ethnomed/hawaiian_pacific_islander/fund/historical_background/pi_colonization.html |access-date=July 8, 2024 |website=Geriatrics |language=en-US}}</ref> Islands were the target of [[Christian missionaries]]. These missionaries faced resistance, but found success when some local chiefs used European support to centralize power. Beginning in the 16th century, European states placed most of [[Oceania]] in under [[Colonialism|colonial administration]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia and Oceania: Human Geography |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/oceania-human-geography |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> [[Pohnpei]] was colonized by Spain as early as 1526. It changed hands from Germany to Japan to the United States before joining the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] in 1982, maintaining a "free association" status with the U.S.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ragone |first1=Diane |last2=Lorence |first2=David H. |last3=Flynn |first3=Timothy |date=2001 |title=History of Plant Introductions to Pohnpei, Micronesia and the Role of the Pohnpei Agriculture Station |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4256429 |journal=Economic Botany |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=290–324 |doi=10.1007/BF02864566 |jstor=4256429 |bibcode=2001EcBot..55..290R |issn=0013-0001}}</ref> [[Guam]] was a Spanish territory until 1898, and now is a [[Territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]] of the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Herman |first=Doug |date=August 15, 2017 |title=A Brief, 500-Year History of Guam |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/brief-500-year-history-guam-180964508/ |access-date=July 13, 2024 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

The [[decolonization]] era saw many island states achieve independence or some form of [[self-governance]].<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Fairbairn |first=Te'O IJ |date=1991 |title=Pacific Islands: politics, economics, and international relations |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a858afb6-0392-4df1-bd92-cce158270479/content |access-date=July 8, 2024 |website=scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu |pages=15,42}}</ref> Nuclear weapons testing on the [[Marshall Islands]] left many atolls destroyed or uninhabitable, causing the [[forced displacement]] of people from their home islands as well as increases in cancer rates due to [[Effects of nuclear explosions|radiation]].<ref name=":14" /> Colonization has resulted in a decline of observance of traditional cultural practices in places such as Hawaii, where Native Hawaiians are now a minority. Cultural attitudes related to communal ownership of land as well as a lack of individualistic decision-making may make some island cultures less compatible with the global [[capitalist]] economy, causing these nations to experience less economic growth.<ref name=":13" />
[[File:Malapascua (island), Tropical beach, Philippines.jpg|alt=An idyllic beach scene with crystal clear water and tropical trees.|thumb|Tourists are attracted to tropical beaches in large numbers, such as this one in [[Malapascua]], the [[Philippines]].]]

=== Tourism ===
Islands have long been a popular target for [[tourism]], thanks to their unique climates, cultures, and natural beauty. However, islands may suffer from poor transportation connectivity from [[airplanes]] and boats and strains on infrastructure from tourist activity.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Keith G. |last2=Cave |first2=Jenny |date=January 1, 2010 |editor-last=G. Brown |editor-first=Keith |editor2-last=Cave |editor2-first=Jenny |title=Island tourism: marketing culture and heritage – editorial introduction to the special issue |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/17506181011045163 |journal=International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=87–95 |doi=10.1108/17506181011045163 |issn=1750-6182}}</ref> Islands in colder climates often rely on seasonal tourists seeking to enjoy nature or local cultures, and may only be one aspect of an island's economy. In contrast, tourism on tropical islands can often make up the majority of the local economy and [[built environment]]. These islands sometimes also require consistent [[foreign aid]] on top of tourism in order to ensure economic growth. This reliance can result in [[social inequality]] and [[environmental degradation]]. During tourism downturns, these economies struggle to make up the lost inflow of cash with other industries.<ref name=":15" />