Editing Hyksos (section)

==Rule and administration==
[[File:Asiatic official Munich (retouched).jpg|thumb|An official wearing the "mushroom-headed" hairstyle also seen in contemporary paintings of Western Asiatic foreigners such as in the tomb of [[Khnumhotep II]], at [[Beni Hasan]]. Excavated in [[Avaris]], the Hyksos capital. Dated to 1802–1640 BC. [[Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Candelora |first1=Danielle |title=The Hyksos |url=https://www.arce.org/resource/hyksos |website=www.arce.org |publisher=American Research Center in Egypt}}</ref>{{sfn|Roy|2011|pp=291–292}}<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|2018|p=[https://www.archaeology.org/issues/309-1809/features/6855-egypt-hyksos-foreign-dynasty#art_page3 3] |ps=. "A head from a statue of an official dating to the 12th or 13th Dynasty (1802–1640 B.C.) sports the mushroom-shaped hairstyle commonly worn by non-Egyptian immigrants from western Asia such as the Hyksos."}}</ref>{{sfn|Potts|2012|p=841}}]]

===Administration===
The Hyksos show a mix of Egyptian and Levantine cultural traits.{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=182}} Their rulers adopted the full [[ancient Egyptian royal titulary]] and employed Egyptian scribes and officials.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=3}} They also used Near-Eastern forms of administration, such as employing a chancellor ({{lang|egy|imy-r khetemet|italics=yes}}) as the head of their administration.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|pp=3–4}}

===Rulers===
The names, the order, length of rule, and even the number of Fifteenth Dynasty rulers are not known with complete certainty. After the end of their rule, the Hyksos kings were not considered legitimate rulers of Egypt and were omitted from most king lists.{{sfn|Ben-Tor|2007|p=2}} The fragmentary [[Turin King List]] included six Hyksos kings, however only the name of the last, [[Khamudi]], is preserved.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=118}} Six names are also preserved in the various epitomes of Manetho, however, it is difficult to reconcile the Turin King List and other sources with names known from Manetho,{{sfn|Bietak|1999|p=378}} mainly due to the "corrupted name forms" in Manetho.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=1}} The name [[Apepi (pharaoh)|Apepi/Apophis]] appears in multiple sources, however.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|pp=7–8}}

Various other archaeological sources also provide names of rulers with the Hyksos title,{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=179}} however, the majority of kings from the second intermediate period are attested once on a single object, with only three exceptions.{{sfn|Ryholt|2018|p=235}} Ryholt associates two other rulers known from inscriptions with the dynasty, [[Khyan]] and [[Sakir-Har]].{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=119–120}} The name of Khyan's son, [[Yanassi]], is also preserved from Tell El-Dab'a.{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=180}} The two best attested kings are Khyan and Apepi.{{sfn|Aston|2018|p=18}} Scholars generally agree that Apepi and Khamudi are the last two kings of the dynasty,{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|pp=6–7}} and Apepi is attested as a contemporary of Seventeenth-Dynasty pharaohs [[Kamose]] and [[Ahmose I]].{{sfn|Aston|2018|p=16}} Ryholt has proposed that Yanassi did not rule and that Khyan directly preceded Apepi,{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=256}} but most scholars agree that the order of kings is: Khyan, Yanassi, Apepi, Khamudi.{{sfn|Aston|2018|pp=15–17}} There is less agreement on the early rulers. Sakir-Har is proposed by Schneider, Ryholt, and Bietak to have been the first king.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}}{{sfn|Schneider|2006|p=194}}{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=201}}

Recently, archaeological finds have suggested that Khyan may have been a contemporary of the Thirteenth Dynasty pharaoh [[Sobekhotep IV]], potentially making him an early rather than a late Hyksos ruler.{{sfn|Aston|2018|p=15}} This has prompted attempts to reconsider the entire chronology of the Hyksos period, which as of 2018 had not yet reached any consensus.{{sfn|Polz|2018|p=217}}

Some kings are attested from either fragments of the Turin King List or from other sources who may have been Hyksos rulers. According to Ryholt, kings [[Semqen]] and [[Aperanat]], known from the Turin King List, may have been early Hyksos rulers,{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=121–122}} however [[Jürgen von Beckerath]] assigns these kings to the [[Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt]].{{sfn|von Beckerath|1999|pp=120–121}} Another king known from [[scarab (artifact)|scarabs]], [[Sheshi]],{{sfn|Bietak|1999|p=378}} is believed by many scholars to be a Hyksos king,{{sfn|Müller|2018|p=210}} however Ryholt assigns this king to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=409}} Manfred Bietak proposes that a king recorded as [[Yaqub-Har]] may also have been a Hyksos king of the Fifteenth Dynasty.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=2}} Bietak suggests that many of the other kings attested on [[scarab (artifact)|scarabs]] may have been vassal kings of the Hyksos.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|pp=2–3}}

{| class="wikitable" width="90%"
|+Hyksos rulers in various sources{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}}{{sfn|Schneider|2006|p=194}}{{sfn|Aston|2018|p=17}}
! Manetho{{sfn|Redford|1992|p=107}}
! Turin King List
! [[Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet]]
! Identification by Redford (1992){{sfn|Redford|1992|p=110}}
! Identification by Ryholt (1997){{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=125}}
! Identification by Bietak (2012){{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}}
! Identification by Schneider (2006) (reconstructed Semitic name in parentheses){{sfn|Aston|2018|p=17}}{{sfn|Schneider|2006|pp=193–194}}{{efn|While Schneider identifies each of the names in Menatho with a pharaoh, he does not hold to Manetho's order of the reigns. So, for instance, he identifies Sakir-Har with Archles/Assis, the sixth king in Manetho, but proposes he reigned first.{{sfn|Schneider|2006|p=–194}}}}
|- 
| Salitis/Saites (19 years)
| X 15
| [[Sharek|Schalek]]{{efn|Identified with Salitis by Bietak.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}}}}
| Sheshi
| ?Semqen (Šamuqēnu)?
| ?Sakir-Har?
| ? (Šarā-Dagan [Šȝrk[n]])
|- 
| Bnon (44 years)
| X 16.... 3 years
|
| Yaqub-Har
| ?Aper-Anat ('Aper-'Anati)?
|?Meruserre Yaqub-Har?
| ? (*Bin-ʿAnu)
|- 
| Apachnan/Pachnan (36/61 years)
| X 17... 8 years 3 months
|
| Khyan
| Sakir-Har
| Seuserenre Khyan
| Khyan ([ʿApaq-]Hajran)
|- 
| Iannas/Staan (50 years)
| X 18... 10 (20, 30) years
| 
| Yanassi (Yansas-X)
| Khyan
| Yanassi (Yansas-idn)
| Yanassi (Jinaśśi’-Ad)

|- 
| Apophis (61/14 years)
| X 19... 40 + x years
| Apepi (?'A-ken?){{efn|This name appears as a separate individual preceding Apepi, but it appears to mean "brave ass" and may be a disparaging reference to Apepi.{{sfn|Redford|1992|p=108}}}}
| Apepi
| Apepi
| A-user-Re Apepi
| Apepi (Apapi)
|-
|- 
| rowspan="2" | Archles/Assis (40/30 years){{efn|In Eusebius and Africanus's epitomes of Manetho, "Apopis" appears in final position, while Archles appears as the fifth ruler. In Josephus, Assis is the final ruler and Apophis the fifth ruler. The association of the names Archles and Assis with one another is a modern reconstruction.{{sfn|Redford|1992|p=107}}}}
| 
|
| ''identifies with ?Khamudi?''
| ''identifies with Khamudi''
| ''Identifies with Khamudi''
| Sakir-Har (Sikru-Haddu)
|-
|X 20 Khamudi
|
| ?Khamudi?{{efn|Redford argues that the name "suits neither Assis nor Apophis".{{sfn|Redford|1992|p=108}}}}
| Khamudi
| Khamudi
| ''not in Manetho'' (Halmu'di)
|-
|Sum: 259 years{{efn|In the epitome of Manetho by [[Eusebius]], the total instead comes to 284 years.{{sfn|Schneider|2006|p=194}}}}
|Sum: 108 years{{efn|This reading is based on a partially damaged section of the papyrus. Reconstructions of the damaged Turin King List proposed in 2018 would change the reading of years to up to 149 years (Ryholt) or between 160 and 180 years (Schneider).{{sfn|Aston|2018|pp=31–32}}}}
||||||||||
|}

None of the proposed identifications besides of Apepi and Apophis is considered certain.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=11}}

In [[Sextus Julius Africanus]]'s epitome of Manetho, the rulers of [[Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Sixteenth Dynasty]] are also identified as "shepherds" (i.e. Hyksos) rulers.{{sfn|Bourriau|2000|p=179}} Following the work of Ryholt in 1997, most but not all scholars now identify the Sixteenth Dynasty as a native Egyptian dynasty based in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], following [[Eusebius]]'s epitome of Manetho; this dynasty would be contemporary to the Hyksos.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=3}}

===Diplomacy===
[[File:Khyan.jpg|thumb|Lion inscribed with the name of the Hyksos ruler [[Khyan]], found in [[Baghdad]], suggesting [[Egypt–Mesopotamia relations|relations with Babylon]]. The prenomen of Khyan and epithet appear on the breast. [[British Museum]], EA 987.{{sfn|Weigall|2016|p=188}}<ref name="Statue British Museum">{{cite web |title=Statue |id=EA987 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA987 |website=The British Museum}}</ref>]]
The Hyksos engagement in long-distance diplomacy is confirmed by a [[cuneiform]] letter discovered in the ruins of Avaris. Hyksos diplomacy with [[Crete]] and [[ancient Near East]] is also confirmed by the presence of gifts from the Hyksos court in those places.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}} [[Khyan]], one of the Hyksos rulers, is known for his wide-ranging contacts, as objects in his name have been found at [[Knossos]] and [[Hattusha]] indicating diplomatic contacts with Crete and the [[Hittites]], and a sphinx with his name was bought on the art market at [[Baghdad]] and might demonstrate [[Egypt–Mesopotamia relations|diplomatic contacts with Babylon]], possibly with the first [[Kassites]] ruler [[Gandash]].{{sfn|Weigall|2016|p=188}}<ref name="Statue British Museum"/>

The Theban rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty are known to have imitated the Hyksos both in their architecture and regnal names.{{sfn|Morenz|Popko|2010|p=108}} There is evidence of friendly relations between the Hyksos and Thebes, including possibly a marriage alliance, before the reign of the Theban pharaoh Seqenenra Tao.{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=160}}

An intercepted letter between Apepi and the King of [[Kingdom of Kerma]], also called Kush, to the south of Egypt recorded on the Carnarvon Tablet has been interpreted as evidence of an alliance between the Hyksos and Kermans.{{sfn|Stiebing|2009|p=168}} Intensive contacts between Kerma and the Hyksos are further attested by seals with the names of Asiatic rulers or with designs known from Avaris at Kerma.{{sfn|Ilin-Tomich|2016|p=9}} The troops of Kerma are known to have raided as far north as [[Elkab]] according to an inscription of [[Sobeknakht II]].{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=4}} According to his second stele, Kamose was effectively caught between the campaign for the siege of Avaris in the north and the offensive of Kerma in the south; it is unknown whether or not the Kermans and Hyksos were able to combine forces against him.{{sfn|Van de Mieroop|2011|p=161}} Kamose reports returning "in triumph" to Thebes. Lutz Popko suggests that this "was perhaps a mere tactical retreat to prevent a war on two fronts".{{sfn|Popko|2013|p=4}} Ahmose I was also forced to confront a threat from the Nubians during his siege of Avaris: he was able to stop the forces of Kerma by sending a strong fleet, killing their ruler named A'ata.{{sfn|Bunson|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-6EJ0G-4jyoC&pg=PA2 2–3]}}{{sfn|Bunson|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-6EJ0G-4jyoC&pg=PA197 197]}} Ahmose I boasts about these successes on his tomb at Thebes.{{sfn|Bunson|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-6EJ0G-4jyoC&pg=PA2 2–3]}} The Kermans also appear to have provided mercenaries to the Hyksos.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|p=4}}

===Vassalage===
Many scholars have described the Egyptian dynasties contemporary to the Hyksos as "vassal" dynasties, an idea partially derived from the [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Nineteenth-Dynasty]] literary text ''[[The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre]]'',{{sfn|Flammini|2015|pp=236–237}} in which it is said "the entire land paid tribute to him [Apepi], delivering their taxes in full as well as bringing all good produce of Egypt."{{sfn|Ritner|Simpson|Tobin|Wente|2003|p=70}} The belief in Hyksos vassalage was challenged by Ryholt as "a baseless assumption."{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=323}} Roxana Flammini suggests instead that Hyksos exerted influence through (sometimes imposed) personal relationships and gift-giving.{{sfn|Flammini|2015|pp=239–243}} Manfred Bietak continues to refer to Hyksos vassals, including minor dynasties of West Semitic rulers in Egypt.{{sfn|Bietak|2012|pp=1–4}}