Editing History of the ancient Levant (section)

=== North ===
[[File:Aramean states.png|thumb|Aramaean states in eastern Syria and Mesopotamia]]

Following the LBA collapse, much of Syria was dominated by [[Aramaeans|Aramean]] tribes and states, who quickly expanded and settled throughout Syria, perhaps incorporating remnants of the older Amorites, and [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Edward">{{cite book |last1=Lipiński |first1=Edward |title=The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion |date=2000 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=9789042908598 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |title=A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities |year=2016 |location=Atlanta |publisher=SBL Press |isbn=9781628370843 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=Reflections on Hazael’s Empire in Light of Recent Study in the Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts |title=Writing and Rewriting History in Ancient Israel and Near Eastern Cultures |year=2020 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=79–102 |isbn=9783447113632 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0t9CzQEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Hafþórsson2006">{{cite book|author=Sigurður Hafþórsson|title=A Passing Power: An Examination of the Sources for the History of Aram-Damascus in the Second Half of the Ninth Century B.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33SgAAAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell International|isbn=978-91-22-02143-8|page=61}}</ref> The pastoral expansion of the Arameans in the [[Assyria]]n regions quickly brought them into conflict with the Assyrians, whose dominion in upper Mesopotamia consequently came to an end (ca. 1114–1056 BCE).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=The Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Transition and the Origins of the Arameans |title=Ugarit at Seventy-Five |year=2007 |location=Winona Lake |publisher=Eisenbrauns |pages=131–174 |isbn=9781575061436 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xbHT7ZiAtUC&pg=PA131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Younger |first=Kenneth Lawson |chapter=War and Peace in the Origins of the Arameans |title=Krieg und Frieden im Alten Vorderasien |year=2014 |location=Münster |publisher=Ugarit Verlag |pages=861–874 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/9122190}}</ref> Aramean infiltration also extended into southern Mesopotamia, where their presence was felt by cities in central [[Babylonia]] as early as the 10th century.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnold |first1=Bill |title=Aramean Origins: The Evidence from Babylonia |url=https://www.academia.edu/3261382 |website=Academia}}</ref> Some of the major Aramaean kingdoms included [[Aram-Damascus]], [[Hamath]], [[Bet-Adini]], [[Samʾal]], [[Bet-Bagyan]], [[Aram-Zobah]], [[Bet-Zamani]] and [[Bet-Halupe]].<ref name="Edward" /> In northern Syria, the dispersal of the Hittites and expansion of Aramaeans gave rise to a conglomeration of [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] and [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]]-speaking kingdoms known as the [[Syro-Hittite states]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=The end of the Bronze age in Anatolia: New Light from Recent Discoveries|title=Anatolian Iron Ages|year=1994|volume=3|location=London-Ankara|publisher=British Institute of Archeology at Ankara|pages=91–94|isbn=9781912090693|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElHDwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=Karkamish and Karatepe: Neo-Hittite City-States in North Syria|title=Civilizations of the Ancient Near East|year=1995a|volume=2|location=New York|publisher=Simon & Schuster Macmillan|pages=1295–1307|isbn=9780684197210|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TY3rAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=Great Kings and Country Lords at Malatya and Karkamiš|title=Studio Historiae Ardens: Ancient Near Eastern Studies|year=1995b|location=Istanbul|publisher=Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul|pages=75–86|isbn=9789062580750|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S0QsAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John David|chapter=The Political Geography of North Syria and South-East Anatolia in the Neo-Assyrian Period|title=Neo-Assyrian Geography|year=1995c|location=Roma|publisher=Università di Roma|pages=87–101|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IaoMAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>

The [[Chaldea]]ns, another West Semitic-speaking group from the Levant, infiltrated Babylonia after the Aramaeans (ca. 940–860 BC), where they were actively involved in rebellion against the Assyrians.<ref name="Edward"/> [[Assyria]]n texts of the 9th century BC further mention the [[History of Arabs|Arabs]] (''Aribi''), who inhabited swaths of land in the [[Levant]] and in [[Babylonia]]n border region in a similar suit to the Aramaeans, their presence seemingly intermingled.<ref name="Retso">{{cite book |last1=Retso |first1=Jan |title=The Arabs in Antiquity Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-136-87282-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9RN6gE8z40C}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sBxRvmw2pDsC&q=Petra+Equini+nabatean|title=Petra|first1=Maria Giulia Amadasi|last1=Guzzo|first2=Eugenia Equini|last2=Schneider|first3=Lydia G.|last3=Cochrane|edition=Illustrated|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=2002|isbn=9780226311258}}</ref><ref name="Edward" /> In Laqe near [[Terqa]], a mix of Arab and Aramaean tribes settled the lower [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur valley]] in 12th century BC, forming a confederation comparable to other tribal leagues of the time.<ref name="Edward" />

Along the coast of northern Canaan, the [[Phoenicia]]n city-states managed to escape the destruction that ensued in the Late Bronze Age collapse and developed into commercial maritime powers with established colonies across the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name="Aubet" /> These colonies stretched into [[Sardinia]], [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], [[Sicily]], [[Malta]] and [[Iberia]].<ref name="Aubet" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chamorro |first1=Javier G. |date=1987 |title=Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=91 |issue=2 |pages=197–232 |doi=10.2307/505217 |jstor=505217 |s2cid=191378720}}</ref> One prominent colony, [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] (from [[Punic language|Punic]] {{lang|xpu|qrt-ḥdšt}}, meaning 'New City'), would eventually become an independent city-state which quarrelled with the [[Roman Republic]] over control of the Mediterranean.<ref name="Aubet2008">{{cite web |author=Maria Eugenia Aubet |year=2008 |title=Political and Economic Implications of the New Phoenician Chronologies |url=http://www.upf.edu/larq/_pdf/AubtCrono.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211024112/http://www.upf.edu/larq/_pdf/AubtCrono.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2013 |access-date=24 February 2013 |publisher=Universidad Pompeu Fabra |page=179 |quote=The recent radiocarbon dates from the earliest levels in Carthage situate the founding of this Tyrian colony in the years 835–800 cal BC, which coincides with the dates handed down by Flavius Josephus and Timeus for the founding of the city.}}</ref><ref name="Aubet" /><ref name="Markoe2000">{{cite book |author=Glenn Markoe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC |title=Phoenicians |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-520-22614-2 |page=55}}</ref>
The Phoenicians transmitted their alphabetic system across the maritime networks, which was eventually adopted and developed into [[Greek alphabet]] and [[Latin alphabet]].<ref name="Aubet" />