Editing History of medicine (section)

== Post-classical medicine ==

[[File:NaplesDioscuridesMandrake.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mandrake]] (written 'ΜΑΝΔΡΑΓΟΡΑ' in Greek capitals). ''[[Naples Dioscurides]]'', 7th century]]

=== Middle East ===

==== Places ====

===== Byzantine medicine =====
{{Main|Byzantine medicine|Medicine in the medieval Islamic world}}

Byzantine medicine encompasses the common medical practices of the [[Byzantine Empire]] from about 400 CE to 1453 CE. Byzantine medicine was notable for building upon the knowledge base developed by its Greco-Roman predecessors. In preserving medical practices from antiquity, Byzantine medicine influenced [[Islamic medicine]] as well as fostering the Western rebirth of medicine during the Renaissance.

Byzantine physicians often compiled and standardized medical knowledge into textbooks. Their records tended to include both diagnostic explanations and technical drawings. The [[Medical Compendium in Seven Books]], written by the leading physician [[Paul of Aegina]], survived as a particularly thorough source of medical knowledge. This compendium, written in the late seventh century, remained in use as a standard textbook for the following 800 years.

Late antiquity ushered in a revolution in medical science, and historical records often mention civilian hospitals (although battlefield medicine and wartime [[triage]] were recorded well before Imperial Rome). [[Constantinople]] stood out as a center of medicine during the Middle Ages, which was aided by its crossroads location, wealth, and accumulated knowledge.

The first ever known example of separating [[conjoined twins]] occurred in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century. The next example of separating conjoined twins would be recorded many centuries later in Germany in 1689.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medievalists.net/2014/01/the-case-of-conjoined-twins-in-10th-century-byzantium/|title=The Case of Conjoined Twins in 10th Century Byzantium|date=4 January 2014|publisher=Medievalists.net|access-date=25 February 2018|archive-date=4 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804174100/http://www.medievalists.net/2014/01/the-case-of-conjoined-twins-in-10th-century-byzantium/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Montandon D | title = The unspeakable history of thoracopagus twins' separation | journal = ISAPS News | date = 2015 | volume = 3 | pages = 46–49 | url = http://denysmontandon.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/conjoined-twins.pdf | access-date = 2018-02-25 | archive-date = 2017-02-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170225215336/http://denysmontandon.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/conjoined-twins.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

The [[Byzantine Empire]]'s neighbors, the Persian [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Empire]], also made their noteworthy contributions mainly with the establishment of the [[Academy of Gondishapur|Academy of Gondeshapur]], which was "the most important medical center of the ancient world during the 6th and 7th centuries."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cambridge History of Iran Volume 4|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1968|isbn=978-0-521-20093-6 |page=396}}</ref> In addition, [[Cyril Elgood]], British physician and a historian of medicine in Persia, commented that thanks to medical centers like the Academy of Gondeshapur, "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to Persia."<ref>{{Cite book|title=A medical history of Persia| vauthors = Cyril E |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1951|page=173}}</ref>

===== Islamic medicine =====
{{Main|Medicine in the medieval Islamic world}}
[[File:Abū Bakr al-Rāzī, Sayr mulhimah min al-Sharq wa-al-Gharb.png|thumb|Sketch of Muslim physician [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi]]]]
The [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] rose to primacy in medical science as its physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including [[anatomy]], [[ophthalmology]], [[pharmacology]], [[pharmacy]], [[physiology]], and surgery. Islamic civilization's contribution to these fields within medicine was a gradual process that took hundreds of years. During the time of the first great Muslim dynasty, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750 CE), these fields were in their very early stages of development, and not much progress was made.<ref name="Dols_1987">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dols MW | title = The origins of the Islamic hospital: myth and reality | journal = Bulletin of the History of Medicine | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 367–390 | date = 1987 | pmid = 3311248 | jstor = 44442098 }}</ref> One reason for the limited advancement in medicine during the Umayyad Caliphate was the Caliphate's focus on expansion after the death of [[Muhammad]] (632 CE).<ref name="Hamarneh_1962">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamarneh S | title = Development of hospitals in Islam | journal = Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 366–384 | date = July 1962 | pmid = 13904051 | doi = 10.1093/jhmas/xvii.3.366 }}</ref> The focus on expansionism redirected resources from other fields, such as medicine. The priority on these factors led a large percentage of the population to believe that God will provide cures for their illnesses and diseases because of the attention on spirituality.<ref name="Hamarneh_1962" />

There were also many other areas of interest during that time before there was a rising interest in the field of medicine. [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]], the fifth caliph of the Umayyad, developed governmental administration, adopted Arabic as the main language, and focused on many other areas.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | vauthors = Khalidi T | title = Abd al-Malik {{!}} Caliph, Achievements, Coinage, & Dome of the Rock | url = https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Malik-Umayyad-caliph | access-date = 2021-11-23 | encyclopedia = Britannica | archive-date = 2017-08-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170818223647/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abd-al-Malik-Umayyad-caliph | url-status = live }}</ref> However, this rising interest in Islamic medicine grew significantly when the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750–1258 CE) overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Lapidus IM |date=October 1975|title=The Separation of State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic Society |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=6|issue=4|pages=363–385|doi=10.1017/s0020743800025344 |s2cid=162409061 }}</ref> This change in dynasty from the Umayyad Caliphate to the Abbasid Caliphate served as a turning point towards scientific and medical developments. A large contributor to this was that under Abbasid rule much of the Greek legacy was transmitted into Arabic which by then, was the main language of Islamic nations.<ref name="Hamarneh_1962" /> Because of this, many Islamic physicians were heavily influenced by the works of Greek scholars of Alexandria and Egypt and were able to further expand on those texts to produce new medical pieces of knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hajar R | title = The Air of History Part III: The Golden Age in Arab Islamic Medicine An Introduction | journal = Heart Views | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–46 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23580929 | pmc = 3621228 | doi = 10.4103/1995-705X.107125 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This period of time is also known as the [[Islamic Golden Age]] where there was a period of development and flourishment of technology, commerce, and sciences including medicine. Additionally, during this time the creation of the first Islamic Hospital in 805 CE by the Abbasid caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] in Baghdad was recounted as a glorious event of the Golden Age.<ref name="Dols_1987" /> This hospital in Baghdad contributed immensely to Baghdad's success and also provided educational opportunities for Islamic physicians. During the Islamic Golden Age, there were many famous Islamic physicians that paved the way for medical advancements and understandings. However, this would not be possible without the influence from many different areas of the world that influenced the Arabs.[[Image:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Arabic]] manuscript, ''Anatomy of the Eye'', by al-Mutadibih, 1200 CE]]

Muslims were influenced by ancient Indian, Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine medical practices, and helped them to develop it further.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Meri JW, Bacharach JL |title=Medieval Islamic civilization: an encyclopedia. Volume I, A-K, Index |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon, Oxon |isbn=978-1-315-16244-7 | page = 783 }}</ref> [[Galen]] & [[Hippocrates]] were pre-eminent authorities. The translation of 129 of Galen's works into Arabic by the Nestorian Christian [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] and his assistants, and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine, set the template for [[Islamic medicine]], which rapidly spread throughout the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Arab Empire]].<ref name="Sarton">{{cite book | vauthors = Sarton G | author-link = George Sarton | title = Introduction to the History of Science }}<br />([[cf.]] {{cite web | vauthors = Zahoor A, Haq Z | date = 1997 | url = http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html | title = Quotations From Famous Historians of Science | work = Cyberistan | access-date = 2007-06-22 | archive-date = 2008-02-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080203140704/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html | url-status = live }}</ref> Its most famous physicians included the Persian polymaths [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi]] and [[Avicenna]], who wrote more than 40 works on health, medicine, and well-being. Taking leads from Greece and Rome, Islamic scholars kept both the art and science of medicine alive and moving forward.<ref name="kill or cure">{{cite book | vauthors = Parker S |title=Kill or cure: an illustrated history of medicine |date=2013 |location=New York City |isbn=978-1-4654-0842-6 |edition=First American}}</ref> Persian polymath [[Avicenna]] has also been called the "father of medicine".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Becka J | title = [The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture. Abu Ali ibn Sina (980–1037)] | language = cs | journal = Casopis Lekaru Ceskych | volume = 119 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–23 | date = January 1980 | pmid = 6989499 }}</ref> He wrote ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |title=Avicenna 980–1037 |publisher=Hcs.osu.edu |access-date=2010-01-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007070250/http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |archive-date=October 7, 2008 }}</ref> considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine |title="The Canon of Medicine" (work by Avicenna) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |year=2008 |access-date=11 Jun 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528230506/https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-92902/The-Canon-of-Medicine |archive-date=28 May 2008 }}</ref> ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' presents an overview of the contemporary [[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world|medical knowledge of the medieval Islamic world]], which had been influenced by earlier traditions including [[Medicine in ancient Rome|Greco-Roman medicine]] (particularly [[Galen]]),<ref name="IranicaX">{{cite encyclopedia | vauthors = Musallam B | date = 30 December 2012 | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Iranica | title = Avicenna: Medicine and Biology | access-date = 20 December 2013 | pages = 94–99 | archive-date = 1 December 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191201044959/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x | url-status = live }}</ref> [[Ancient Iranian medicine|Persian medicine]], [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese medicine]] and [[Ayurveda|Indian medicine]]. Persian physician [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Rāzi]]<ref name="Tschanz">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tschanz DW | year = 2003 | title = Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine | journal = Heart Views | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | url = http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199703/the.arab.roots.of.european.medicine.htm | access-date = 2019-03-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040503004153/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199703/the.arab.roots.of.european.medicine.htm | archive-date = 2004-05-03 | url-status = dead }}</ref> was one of the first to question the Greek theory of [[humorism]], which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval [[Islamic medicine]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Pormann PE, Savage-Smith |author-link2 =Emilie Savage-Smith | chapter = On the dominance of the Greek humoral theory, which was the basis for the practice of bloodletting, in medieval Islamic medicine |year=2007 |title=Medieval Islamic medicine |publisher=Georgetown University |location=Washington DC |pages=10, 43–45 |ol=12911905W}}</ref> Some volumes of al-Rāzi's work ''Al-Mansuri'', namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Springer| pages = 155–56| vauthors = Iskandar A | title = Al-Rāzī | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures| year = 2006| edition=2nd}}</ref> Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Ganchy S |title=Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology |date=2009 |publisher=Rosen Pub |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-1-4358-5679-0 |edition=1st}}</ref> the father of [[pediatrics]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tschanz DW | year = 2003 | title = Arab(?) Roots of European Medicine | journal = Heart Views | volume = 4 | issue = 2 }}</ref><ref name="Elgood">{{cite book| vauthors = Elgood C |title=A Medical History of Persia and The Eastern Caliphate |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge |location=London |isbn=978-1-108-01588-2 |pages=202–03|edition=1st|quote=By writing a monograph on 'Diseases in Children' he may also be looked upon as the father of paediatrics.}}</ref> and a pioneer of [[ophthalmology]]. For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.{{cn|date=March 2024}}

In addition to contributions to humanity's understanding of human anatomy, Islamicate scientists and scholars, physicians specifically, played an invaluable role in the development of the modern hospital system, creating the foundations on which more contemporary medical professionals would build models of public health systems in Europe and elsewhere.<ref name="Majeed_2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Majeed A | title = How Islam changed medicine | journal = BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) | volume = 331 | issue = 7531 | pages = 1486–7 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16373721 | pmc = 1322233 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486 }}</ref> During the time of the Safavid empire (16th–18th centuries) in Iran and the Mughal empire (16th–19th centuries) in India, Muslim scholars radically transformed the institution of the hospital, creating an environment in which rapidly developing medical knowledge of the time could be passed among students and teachers from a wide range of cultures.<ref name="Speziale, F. 2012 pp. 2-4">{{cite book | chapter = The Hospital and Other Muslim Institutions [Introduction] | pages = 2–4 | veditors = Speziale F |title=Hospitals in Iran and India, 1500-1950s |date=2012 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, NV |isbn=978-90-04-22829-0}}</ref> There were two main schools of thought with patient care at the time. These included humoral physiology from the Persians and Ayurvedic practice. After these theories were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and vice-versa, hospitals could have a mix of culture and techniques. This allowed for a sense of collaborative medicine.{{cn|date=April 2024}} Hospitals became increasingly common during this period as wealthy patrons commonly founded them. Many features that are still in use today, such as an emphasis on hygiene, a staff fully dedicated to the care of patients, and separation of individual patients from each other were developed in Islamicate hospitals long before they came into practice in Europe.<ref>{{cite report | vauthors = Barker P | date = 2020 | title = History of Science in the Persianate World. | work = Lecture }}</ref> At the time, the patient care aspects of hospitals in Europe had not taken effect. European hospitals were places of religion rather than institutions of science. As was the case with much of the scientific work done by Islamicate scholars, many of these novel developments in medical practice were transmitted to European cultures hundreds of years after they had long been used throughout the Islamicate world. Although Islamicate scientists were responsible for discovering much of the knowledge that allows the hospital system to function safely today, European scholars who built on this work still receive the majority of the credit historically.<ref name="Majeed_2005" />

Before the development of scientific medical practices in the Islamicate empires, medical care was mainly performed by religious figures such as priests.<ref name="Majeed_2005"/> Without a profound understanding of how infectious diseases worked and why sickness spread from person to person, these early attempts at caring for the ill and injured often did more harm than good. Contrarily, with the development of new and safer practices by scholars and physicians in hospitals of the Islamic world, ideas vital for the effective care of patients were developed, learned, and transmitted widely. Hospitals developed novel "concepts and structures" which are still in use today: separate wards for male and female patients, pharmacies, medical record-keeping, and personal and institutional sanitation and hygiene.<ref name="Majeed_2005"/> Much of this knowledge was recorded and passed on through Islamicate medical texts, many of which were carried to Europe and translated for the use of European medical workers. The Tasrif, written by surgeon Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi, was translated into Latin; it became one of the most important medical texts in European universities during the Middle Ages and contained useful information on surgical techniques and spread of bacterial infection.<ref name="Majeed_2005"/>

The hospital was a typical institution included in the majority of Muslim cities, and although they were often physically attached to religious institutions, they were not themselves places of religious practice.<ref name="Speziale, F. 2012 pp. 2-4"/> Rather, they served as facilities in which education and scientific innovation could flourish. If they had places of worship, they were secondary to the medical side of the hospital. Islamicate hospitals, along with observatories used for astronomical science, were some of the most important points of exchange for the spread of scientific knowledge. Undoubtedly, the hospital system developed in the Islamicate world played an invaluable role in the creation and evolution of the hospitals we as a society know and depend on today.

=== Europe ===
{{main|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}[[Image:13th century anatomical illustration - sharp.jpg|thumb|upright|13th-century illustration showing the veins. [[Bodleian Library]], Oxford.|left]]After 400 CE, the study and practice of medicine in the Western Roman Empire went into deep decline. Medical services were provided, especially for the poor, in the thousands of monastic hospitals that sprang up across Europe, but the care was rudimentary and mainly palliative.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Porter R | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind. A medical history of humanity | series = The Norton History of Science | publisher = WW Norton & Company | date = October 1999 | pages = 106–134 | isbn = 978-0-393-31980-4 }}</ref> Most of the writings of Galen and Hippocrates were lost to the West, with the summaries and compendia of [[St. Isidore of Seville]] being the primary channel for transmitting Greek medical ideas.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharpe WD | title = Isidore of Seville: The Medical Writings, An English Translation with an Introduction and Commentary | journal = Transactions of the American Philosophical Society | date = January 1964 | volume = 54 | issue = 2 | pages = 1–75 | doi = 10.2307/1005938 | jstor = 1005938 }}</ref> The [[Carolingian Renaissance]] brought increased contact with Byzantium and a greater awareness of ancient medicine,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McKitterick R | chapter = The Carolingian Renaissance of Culture and Learning | veditors = Story J |title=Charlemagne: Empire and Society |date=2005 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester |isbn=978-0-7190-7089-1}}</ref> but only with the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]] and the new translations coming from Muslim and Jewish sources in Spain, and the fifteenth-century flood of resources after the fall of Constantinople did the West fully recover its acquaintance with classical antiquity.

Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages it changed: medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and [[Mondino de Luzzi]] ({{circa|1275}}–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.<ref name="Numbers 2009 45" /><ref name="news.harvard.edu" />

Wallis identifies a prestige hierarchy with university educated physicians on top, followed by learned surgeons; craft-trained surgeons; barber surgeons; itinerant specialists such as dentist and oculists; empirics; and midwives.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Wallis F |title=Medieval Medicine: A Reader |date=2010 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |isbn=978-1-4426-0423-0 | page = 361 }}</ref>

====Institutions====
The first medical schools were opened in the 9th century, most notably the [[Schola Medica Salernitana]] at Salerno in southern Italy. The cosmopolitan influences from Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew sources gave it an international reputation as the Hippocratic City. Students from wealthy families came for three years of preliminary studies and five of medical studies. The medicine, following the laws of Federico II, that he founded in 1224 the university and improved the Schola Salernitana, in the period between 1200 and 1400, it had in Sicily (so-called Sicilian Middle Ages) a particular development so much to create a true school of Jewish medicine.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vecchio I, Tornali C, Rampello L, Rampello L, Migliore M, Silvia G, Rigo GA | title = Jewish medicine and surgery in Catania, Italy before 1492. | journal = Acta Medica Mediterranea | date = January 2013 | volume = 29 | pages = 359–362 | url = https://www.iris.unict.it/retrieve/handle/20.500.11769/29763/14339/med2013_pag-359.pdf | access-date = 2022-09-20 | archive-date = 2022-09-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220920181028/https://www.iris.unict.it/retrieve/handle/20.500.11769/29763/14339/med2013_pag-359.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

As a result of which, after a legal examination, was conferred to a Jewish Sicilian woman, [[Virdimura]], wife of another physician Pasquale of Catania, the historical record of before woman officially trained to exercise of the medical profession.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vecchio I, Di Mauro S, Tornali C, Rampello L, Migliore M, Rampello L, Rigo GS, Castellino P | title = Jewish medicine and surgery in sicily before 1492 | journal = Acta Medica Mediterranea | date = January 2012 | volume = 28 | pages = 77–82 | url = https://www.iris.unict.it/bitstream/20.500.11769/323611/2/2012%20Jewish%20%20Medicine%20and%20Surgery%20in%20Sicily%20Before%201492%20acta%20medica%20med%202012%2028%2077.pdf | access-date = 2022-09-20 | archive-date = 2022-09-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220920181028/https://www.iris.unict.it/bitstream/20.500.11769/323611/2/2012%20Jewish%20%20Medicine%20and%20Surgery%20in%20Sicily%20Before%201492%20acta%20medica%20med%202012%2028%2077.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

At the [[University of Bologna]] the training of physicians began in 1219. The Italian city attracted students from across Europe. Taddeo Alderotti built a tradition of medical education that established the characteristic features of Italian learned medicine and was copied by medical schools elsewhere.[[Turisanus]] (d. 1320) was his student.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Siraisi NG | title = M Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice. | publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = May 2009 | page = 21 | isbn = 978-0-226-76131-2 }}</ref>

The [[University of Padua]] was founded about 1220 by walkouts from the [[University of Bologna]], and began teaching medicine in 1222. It played a leading role in the identification and treatment of diseases and ailments, specializing in autopsies and the inner workings of the body.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bylebyl JJ | chapter = Chapter 10: The School of Padua: humanistic medicine in the 16th century |title=Health, Medicine and Mortality in the Sixteenth Century |date=1979 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge [England] |isbn=978-0-521-22643-1}}</ref> Starting in 1595, Padua's famous anatomical theatre drew artists and scientists studying the human body during public dissections. The intensive study of Galen led to critiques of Galen modeled on his own writing, as in the first book of Vesalius's ''De humani corporis fabrica.'' [[Andreas Vesalius]] held the chair of Surgery and Anatomy (''explicator chirurgiae'') and in 1543 published his anatomical discoveries in ''[[De Humani Corporis Fabrica]]''. He portrayed the human body as an interdependent system of organ groupings. The book triggered great public interest in dissections and caused many other European cities to establish anatomical theatres.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lo Presti R |year=2010 |title=Anatomy as Epistemology: The Body of Man and the Body of Medicine in Vesalius and his Ancient Sources (Celsus, Galen) |url=http://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/renref/article/view/15351 |journal=Renaissance and Reformation/Renaissance et Reforme |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=27–60 |access-date=2017-08-30 |archive-date=2017-08-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830200059/http://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/renref/article/view/15351 |url-status=live }}</ref>

By the thirteenth century, the medical school at Montpellier began to eclipse the Salernitan school. In the 12th century, universities were founded in Italy, France, and England, which soon developed schools of medicine. The [[University of Montpellier]] in France and Italy's [[University of Padua]] and [[University of Bologna]] were leading schools. Nearly all the learning was from lectures and readings in Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, and Aristotle. In later centuries, the importance of universities founded in the late Middle Ages gradually increased, e.g. [[Charles University]] in Prague (established in 1348), [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]] (1364), [[University of Vienna]] (1365), [[Heidelberg University]] (1386) and [[University of Greifswald]] (1456).
<gallery widths=170 heights=170>
File:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg|A miniature depicting the [[Schola Medica Salernitana]] in [[Salerno]] in Italy
File:The ruins of St. Giles Leper Hospital - geograph.org.uk - 834044.jpg|Ruins of [[Great Hospital|St. Giles Hospital (Great Hospital)]]
File:Collegium Maius 2017.jpg|The oldest Polish Collegium Medicum at [[Jagiellonian University]], founded in 1364
</gallery>