Editing History of India (section)

=== Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)<!--Linked from 'Mahajanapadas'--> ===

[[File:City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.jpg|thumb|right|City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate]]
The period between 800 and 200&nbsp;BCE saw the formation of the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement, from which [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] originated. The first [[Upanishads]] were written during this period. After 500&nbsp;BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|page=41}}}} started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=47}} The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the [[Painted Grey Ware culture]] of the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.<ref>{{cite book|last=Heitzman|first=James|date=31 March 2008|title=The City in South Asia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-134-28963-9|url=https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit/page/12 12]–13}}</ref>

The Central Ganges Plain, where [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] gained prominence, forming the base of the [[Maurya Empire]], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2008|pp=47–48}} with new states arising after 500&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46844/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce|title=The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 BCE|year=2015|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>{{sfn|Samuel|2008|pp=41, 43}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|pp=48–51}} It "was the area of the earliest known [[History of rice cultivation#Indian subcontinent|cultivation of rice in South Asia]] and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=49}} In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=48}}

==== Buddhism and Jainism ====
{{Main|Upanishads|Śramaṇa}}
{{Further|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism|History of Jainism|Indian religions|Indian philosophy}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| title = Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements
| image1 = MS Indic 37, Isa upanisad. Wellcome L0027330.jpg|caption1=A page of ''[[Isha Upanishad]]'' manuscript.
| image2 = Vardhaman Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg|caption2=[[Mahavira]], the 24th and last [[Tirthankara]] of [[Jainism]].
| image3 = Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar.jpg|caption3=[[Gautama Buddha]]'s cremation stupa, [[Kushinagar]] (Kushinara).
}}

The time between 800&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest [[Upanishads]],<ref name="Flood 1996 82">{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin Dennis|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82|year=1996|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mascaró|first=Juan|author-link=Juan Mascaró|title=The Upanishads|url=https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc|url-access=registration|year=1965|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|isbn=978-0-14-044163-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc/page/7 7]–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|title=Upaniṣads|year=2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-954025-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/ xxiv–xxix]|url=https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/|url-access=registration}}</ref> which form the theoretical basis of [[Hinduism|classical Hinduism]], and are also known as the ''[[Vedanta]]'' (conclusion of the [[Vedas]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Baumann|first1=Martin|editor-last1=Melton|editor-first1=J. Gordon|editor-link2=J. Gordon Melton|editor-last2=Baumann|editor-first2=Martin|encyclopedia=Religions of the World|title=Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|access-date=|edition=2nd|year=2010|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|volume=3|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref>

The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<ref name="Flood 1996 82" /> [[Mahavira]] ({{circa}} 599–527&nbsp;BCE), proponent of [[Jainism]], and [[Gautama Buddha]] ({{circa}} 563–483&nbsp;BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of [[samsara]], and the concept of liberation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olivelle|first1=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|editor1-last=Flood|editor1-first=Gavin|editor1-link=Gavin Flood|chapter=The Renouncer Tradition|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|pages=273–274|quote=The second half of the first millennium BC was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.&nbsp;... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara—the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana—the goal of human existence ...}}</ref> Buddha found a [[Middle Way]] that ameliorated the extreme [[asceticism]] found in the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' religions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laumakis|first1=Stephen|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-38589-6|page=4}}</ref>

Around the same time, [[Mahavira]] (the 24th ''[[Tirthankara]]'' in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/121/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=121|quote=Jainism's major teacher for this age is Mahavira ... was a contemporary of the Buddha and died approximately 527 BCE.}}</ref> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the ''Tirthankaras'' predates all known time and scholars believe [[Parshvanatha]] (c. 872 – c. 772&nbsp;BCE), accorded status as the 23rd ''Tirthankara'', was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few ''Tirthankaras'' and an ascetic order similar to the ''Śramaṇa'' movement.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/122/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=122|quote=The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-Vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.}}</ref>

==== Mahajanapadas ====
{{Main|Mahajanapadas}}
[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|left|The [[Mahajanapadas]] were sixteen powerful polities located mainly within the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] ]]
The period from {{circa|600&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} to {{circa|300&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} featured the rise of the [[Mahajanapadas]], sixteen powerful [[Realm|kingdoms]] and [[oligarchic]] republics in a belt stretching from [[Gandhara]] in the north-west to [[Bengal]] in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans-[[Vindhya Range|Vindhyan]] region.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=260–261}} Ancient [[Buddhist texts]], like the ''[[Aṅguttara Nikāya]]'',<ref>Anguttara Nikaya I. p. 213; IV. pp. 252, 256, 261.</ref> make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—[[Anga]], [[Assaka]], [[Avanti (India)|Avanti]], [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedi]], [[Gandhara]], [[Kingdom of Kashi|Kashi]], [[Kambojas|Kamboja]], [[Kosala]], [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]], [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], [[Malla (tribe)|Malla]], [[Matsya (tribe)|Matsya]] (or Machcha), [[Panchala]], [[Surasena]], [[Vajjika League|Vṛji]], and [[Vatsa]]. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}

[[File:Xerxes Hidush warrior 480 BCE.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hindush]] warrior, on the [[Tomb of Xerxes I]], circa 480 BCE.]]
Early "republics" or [[gaṇasaṅgha|{{transliteration|sa|gaṇasaṅgha}}]],<ref name="Thapar">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA147|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|year=2002|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|pages=146–150|access-date=28 October 2013|isbn=978-0-520-24225-8}}</ref> such as [[Shakya]]s, [[Koliya]]s, [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s, and [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavis]] had republican governments. {{transliteration|sa|Gaṇasaṅgha}}s,<ref name="Thapar" /> such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of [[Kusinagara]], and the [[Vajjika League]], centred in the city of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 107</ref> The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavis]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Republics in ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=93–|id=GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0}}</ref>

This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights, [[punch-marked coins]], and the introduction of writing in the form of [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] and [[Kharosthi]] scripts.<ref>J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In ''Historical Roots" in the Making of 'the Aryan'', R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.</ref><ref>{{cite conference|title=Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond|first=Jim|last=Shaffer|author-link=Jim G. Shaffer|year=1993|conference=|volume=31|book-title=Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times|series=Symposium Papers XV|publisher=National Gallery of Art|pages=53–67|jstor=42620472}}</ref> The language of the gentry at that time was [[Sanskrit]], while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as [[Prakrit]]s.

Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of [[Gautama Buddha]]. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}

==== Early Magadha dynasties ====
{{Main|Magadha|Greater Magadha}}
{{See also|Magadha period|Pradyota dynasty|Haryanka dynasty|Shaishunaga dynasty}}
[[File:Magadha Expansion (6th-4th centuries BCE).png|thumb|right|Magadha state c. 600&nbsp;BCE, which is later expanded from its capital [[Rajagriha]] – under the [[Haryanka dynasty]] and the later [[Shishunaga dynasty]].]]

Magadha formed one of the sixteen [[Mahajanapadas]] ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Realms") or [[Kingdoms of Ancient India|kingdoms in ancient India]]. The core of the kingdom was the area of [[Bihar]] south of the [[Ganges]]; its first capital was [[Rajagriha]] (modern Rajgir) then [[Pataliputra]] (modern [[Patna]]). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavi]] and [[Anga]] respectively,<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient India|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass Publishers]]|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra|author-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1977|isbn=978-81-208-0436-4|edition=8th}}</ref> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]] and [[Puranas]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/magadha-empire.html|title=Magadha Empire – Magadha Empire in India, History of Magadh Empire|website=iloveindia.com}}</ref> The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the [[Atharva-Veda]] where they are found listed along with the [[Anga]]s, [[Gandhara|Gandharis]], and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

Early sources, from the Buddhist [[Pāli Canon]], the [[Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)|Jain Agamas]] and the Hindu [[Puranas]], mention Magadha being ruled by the [[Pradyota dynasty]] and [[Haryanka dynasty]] ({{circa}} 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, {{circa}} 600–413&nbsp;BCE. King [[Bimbisara]] of the [[Haryanka dynasty]] led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and [[West Bengal]]. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince [[Ajatashatru]], who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, [[Gautama Buddha]], the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in [[Bodh Gaya]], gave his first sermon in [[Sarnath]] and the [[Buddhist councils|first Buddhist council]] was held in Rajgriha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|publisher=lumbinitrust.org|title=Lumbini Development Trust: Restoring the Lumbini Garden|access-date=6 January 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306041858/http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the [[Shaishunaga dynasty]] ({{circa}} 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by [[Mahapadma Nanda]] in 345&nbsp;BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons).

==== Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign ====
{{main|Nanda Empire}}
{{See also|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great}}
The [[Nanda Empire]] ({{circa}} 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the [[Punjab]] in the west and as far south as the [[Vindhya Range]].{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}} The [[Nanda dynasty]] built on the foundations laid by their [[Haryanka dynasty|Haryanka]] and [[Shishunaga dynasty|Shishunaga]] predecessors.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=273}} Nanda empire have built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 [[infantry]], 20,000 [[cavalry]], 2,000 war [[Ratha|chariot]]s and 3,000 [[war elephant]]s (at the lowest estimates).{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raychaudhuri|first1=Hem Chandra|author1-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Bratindra Nath|author2-link=B. N. Mukherjee|year=1996|orig-year=First published 1923|title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000rayc|url-access=registration|edition=8th|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=208–209|isbn=978-0-19-563789-2}}</ref>

==== Maurya Empire ====
{{Main|Maurya Empire}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| caption_align     = center
| title             = Maurya Empire
| image1            = Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE.png
| caption1          = [[Maurya Empire]] at its peak under [[Ashoka the Great]].
| image2            = Asokanpillar2.jpg
| caption2          = [[Ashokan pillar]] at [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], 3rd century BCE.
}}

The Maurya Empire (322–185&nbsp;BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the [[List of largest empires|largest empire]] ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D.|title=East–West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=12 September 2016|issn=1076-156X}}</ref> At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the [[Himalayas]] and to the east into what is now [[Assam]]. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by [[Chandragupta Maurya]] assisted by Chanakya ([[Kautilya]]) in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (in modern [[Bihar]]) when he overthrew the [[Nanda Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=70}}</ref>

Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317&nbsp;BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]], founder of the [[Seleucid Empire]], during the [[Seleucid–Mauryan war]], thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son [[Bindusara]] succeeded to the throne around 297&nbsp;BCE. By the time he died in {{circa}} 272&nbsp;BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] (around modern day [[Odisha]]) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}}

[[File:Lomas Rishi entrance.jpg|thumb|The Mauryan carved door of [[Lomas Rishi cave|Lomas Rishi]], one of the [[Barabar Caves]], {{circa}} 250 BCE]]
Bindusara was succeeded by [[Ashoka]], whose reign lasted until his death in about 232&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}} His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260&nbsp;BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}} The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, [[Brihadratha Maurya|Brihadratha]], was assassinated by [[Pushyamitra Shunga]] to establish the [[Shunga Empire]].{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}}

Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the [[Grand Trunk Road]], one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/dinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road/|title=Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road|last=Bhandari|first=Shirin|date=5 January 2016|website=Roads & Kingdoms|language=en-US|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref> After the [[Kalinga War]], the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of [[Jainism]] increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the [[Indo-Mediterranean]], into [[Sri Lanka]], [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], [[West Asia]], [[North Africa]], and [[Southern Europe|Mediterranean Europe]].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=67}}

The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' written by [[Chanakya]] and the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of [[Northern Black Polished Ware]]. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=78}}</ref> Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, [[usury]] was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.{{sfn|Antonova|Bongard-Levin|Kotovsky|1979|p=91}} During this period, a high-quality steel called [[Wootz steel]] was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<ref>''Technology and Society'' by Menon, R.V.G. p. 15</ref>

==== Sangam period ====
{{Main|Sangam period|Sources of ancient Tamil history|Sangam literature|Five Great Epics}}
{{See also|Three Crowned Kings|Tamilakam|List of Tamil monarchs}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = South India in Sangam Period.jpg
| caption1          = [[Tamilakam]], located at the tip of [[South India]] during the Sangam period, ruled by [[Chera dynasty]], [[Chola dynasty]] and the [[Pandyan dynasty]].
| image2            = Puhar-ILango.jpg
| caption2          = [[Ilango Adigal]], author of [[Silappatikaram]], one of the [[the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature|five great epics]] of [[Tamil literature]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review.|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|year=1975|pages=148–150|last=Rosen|first=Elizabeth S.|jstor=3250226|doi=10.2307/3250226}}</ref>
}}

During the Sangam period [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the [[Three Crowned Kings]] of [[Tamilakam]]: [[Chera dynasty]], [[Chola dynasty]], and the [[Pandya dynasty]] ruled parts of southern India.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=204–205}}

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.<ref>''Essays on Indian Renaissance'' by Raj Kumar p. 260</ref> Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.<ref>''The First Spring: The Golden Age of India'' by [[Abraham Eraly]] p. 655</ref>

Around {{circa}} 300 BCE – {{circa}} 200 CE, [[Pathupattu]], an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of [[Sangam Literature]], were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works [[Ettuthogai]] as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works [[Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku]]; while [[Tolkāppiyam]], the earliest grammarian work in the [[Tamil language]] was developed.<ref>* Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. Zvelebil dates the ''Ur-Tholkappiyam'' to the 1st or 2nd century BCE</ref> Also, during Sangam period, two of [[the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature]] were composed. [[Ilango Adigal]] composed ''[[Silappatikaram]]'', which is a non-religious work, that revolves around [[Kannagi (Tamil mythology)|Kannagi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|title=Silappathikaram Tamil Literature|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=22 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411214545/http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|archive-date=11 April 2013}}</ref> and ''[[Manimekalai]]'', composed by [[Chithalai Chathanar]], is a sequel to ''Silappatikaram'', and tells the story of the daughter of [[Kovalan]] and [[Madhavi (Silappatikaram)|Madhavi]], who became a [[Buddhist]] [[Bhikkhunī|Bhikkhuni]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mukherjee|1999|p=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/4_drav/tamil/pm/pm141__u.htm|title=Cittalaiccattanar (c. 500): Manimekalai|website=gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de}}</ref>