Editing History of France (section)

== Early Modern France (1453–1789) ==
[[File:Map France 1477-en.svg|thumb|France in the late 15th century: a mosaic of feudal territories]]

{{Main|Early Modern France|History of French foreign relations}}

=== Ancien Regime ===
{{Main|Ancien Régime}}

France's population was 13 million people in 1484 and 20 million in 1700. It had the second largest population in Europe around 1700. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries grew faster.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goubert |first=Pierre |title=The Ancien Régime |date=1973 |pages=2–9 |author-link=Pierre Goubert}}</ref>

Political power was widely dispersed. The law courts ("Parlements") were powerful. However, the king had only about 10,000 officials in royal service – very few indeed for such a large country, and with very slow internal communications over an inadequate road system. Travel was usually faster by ocean ship or river boat.<ref name="autogenerated5"/> The different [[estates of the realm]] — the clergy, the nobility, and commoners — occasionally met together in the "[[Estates General (France)|Estates General]]", but in practice the Estates General had no power, for it could petition the king but could not pass laws.

[[Catholic Church in France|The Catholic Church]] controlled about 40% of the wealth. The king (not the pope) nominated bishops, but typically had to negotiate with noble families that had close ties to local monasteries and church establishments. The nobility came second in terms of wealth, but there was no unity. Each noble had his own lands, his own network of regional connections, and his own military force.<ref name="autogenerated5">{{Cite book |last=Baumgartner |first=Frederick J. |title=France in the Sixteenth Century |date=1995 |pages=4–7}}</ref>

The cities had a quasi-independent status, and were largely controlled by the leading merchants and guilds. Peasants made up the vast majority of the population, who in many cases had well-established rights that the authorities had to respect. In the 17th century peasants had ties to the market economy, provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town).<ref name="amazon1991">{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=James B. |title=Geographic and Social Mobility in Early-modern France |journal=[[Journal of Social History]] |date=1991 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=563–577 |doi=10.1353/jsh/24.3.563 |jstor=3787815 |issn=0022-4529}} For the ''Annales'' interpretation see {{Cite book |last=Goubert |first=Pierre |title=The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century |date=1986 |author-link=Pierre Goubert}}</ref>
Although most peasants in France spoke local dialects, an official language emerged in Paris and the [[French language#Modern French|French language]] became the preferred language of Europe's aristocracy and the [[lingua franca]] of diplomacy and international relations. Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] quipped, "I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Santayana |first1=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tCobBRiv3_MC&pg=PA299 |title=The letters of George Santayana |last2=Holzberger |first2=William G. |date=31 July 2008 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-2621-9571-3 |volume=1948–1952, Book 8 |page=299 |author-link=George Santayana}}</ref>

=== Consolidation (15th and 16th centuries) ===
[[File:Weyden Karl der Kuehne.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Charles the Bold]], the last Valois [[Duke of Burgundy]]. His death at the [[Battle of Nancy]] (1477) marked the division of his lands between the kings of France and Habsburg dynasty.]]
With the death in 1477 of [[Charles the Bold]], France and the Habsburgs began a long process of dividing his rich Burgundian lands, leading to numerous wars. In 1532, Brittany was [[Union between Brittany and France|incorporated]] into the Kingdom of France.

France engaged in the long [[Italian Wars]] (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] faced powerful foes, and he was captured at [[Battle of Pavia|Pavia]]. The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The [[Barbarossa (Ottoman admiral)|Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa]] captured Nice in 1543 and handed it down to Francis I.

During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian [[Habsburgs]] were the dominant power in Europe. The many domains of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] encircled France. The [[Tercio|Spanish Tercio]] was used with great success against French knights. Finally, on 7 January 1558, the [[Francis, Duke of Guise|Duke of Guise]] seized Calais from the English.

Economic historians call the era from about 1475 to 1630 the "beautiful 16th century" because of the return of peace, prosperity and optimism across the nation, and the steady growth of population. In 1559, [[Henri II of France|Henry II of France]] signed (with the approval of [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor]]) [[Italian War of 1551–1559#Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)|two treaties (''Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis'')]]: one with [[Elizabeth I of England]] and one with [[Philip II of Spain]]. This ended long-lasting conflicts between France, England and Spain.

=== Protestant Huguenots and wars of religion (1562–1629) ===
{{Main|French Wars of Religion}}
[[File:Henry IV of france by pourbous younger.jpg|thumb|[[Henry IV of France]] was the first French [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] king.]]

The [[Protestant Reformation]], inspired in France mainly by [[John Calvin]], began to challenge the legitimacy and rituals of the [[Catholic Church in France#Renaissance Church and Protestantism|Catholic Church]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wernham |first=R. B. |title=The New Cambridge Modern History |date=1968 |isbn=978-0-5210-4543-8 |volume=3 |pages=91–93|publisher=CUP Archive}}</ref> French King [[Henry II of France|Henry II]] severely persecuted Protestants under the [[Edict of Chateaubriand]] (1551).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=T.H.L. |title=John Calvin: A Biography |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-7459-5228-4 |pages=161–164 |orig-date=1975}}</ref> Renewed Catholic reaction — headed by the powerful [[Francis, Duke of Guise]] — led to a massacre of Huguenots at [[Wassy|Vassy]] in 1562, starting the first of the [[French Wars of Religion]], during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant ("Huguenot") and Catholic forces.

King [[Henry II of France|Henry II]] died in 1559 in a jousting tournament; he was succeeded in turn by his three sons, each of whom assumed the throne as minors or were weak, ineffectual rulers. Into the power vacuum entered Henry's widow, [[Catherine de' Medici]], who became a central figure in the early years of the Wars of Religion. She is often blamed for the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] of 1572, when thousands of Huguenots were murdered in Paris and the provinces of France.

The Wars of Religion culminated in the [[War of the Three Henrys]] (1584–98), at the height of which bodyguards of the King [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] assassinated [[Henry I, Duke of Guise|Henry de Guise]], leader of the Spanish-backed [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic league]], in December 1588. In revenge, a priest assassinated Henry III in 1589. This led to the ascension of the Huguenot [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]]; in order to bring peace to a country beset by religious and succession wars, he converted to Catholicism. He issued the [[Edict of Nantes]] in 1598, which guaranteed religious liberties to the Protestants, thereby effectively ending the civil war.<ref name="autogenerated2005">{{Cite book |last=Holt |first=Mack P. |title=The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1394-4767-6 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Henry IV was assassinated in 1610 by [[François Ravaillac|a fanatical Catholic]].

When in 1620 the Huguenots proclaimed a constitution for the 'Republic of the Reformed Churches of France', the chief minister [[Cardinal Richelieu]] invoked the entire powers of the state to stop it. Religious conflicts therefore resumed under [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] when Richelieu forced Protestants to disarm their army and fortresses. This conflict ended in the [[Siege of La Rochelle]] (1627–28), in which Protestants and their English supporters were defeated. The following [[Peace of Alais]] (1629) confirmed religious freedom yet dismantled the Protestant military defences.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliott |first=J. H. |title=Richelieu and Olivares |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5214-0674-1 |pages=100+ |author-link=John Elliott (historian)}}</ref>

In the face of persecution, Huguenots dispersed widely throughout Europe and America.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sparks |first1=Randy J. |title=Memory and Identity: The Huguenots in France and the Atlantic Diaspora |last2=Van Ruymbeke |first2=Bertrand |date=2003 |publisher=Univ of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-5700-3484-8}}</ref>

=== Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) ===
{{Main|Thirty Years' War}}
The religious conflicts that plagued France also ravaged the Habsburg-led Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years' War eroded the power of the Catholic Habsburgs. Although [[Cardinal Richelieu]], the powerful chief minister of France, had mauled the Protestants, he joined this war on their side in 1636 because it was in the [[national interest]]. Imperial Habsburg forces invaded France, ravaged [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]], and nearly threatened Paris.<ref name="autogenerated6">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Peter H. |title=Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years' War |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-6740-3634-5}}</ref>

Richelieu died in 1642 and was succeeded by [[Cardinal Mazarin]], while Louis XIII died one year later and was succeeded by [[Louis XIV]]. France was served by some very efficient commanders such as [[Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé]] and [[Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne]]. The French forces won a decisive victory at [[Battle of Rocroi|Rocroi]] (1643), and the Spanish army was decimated; the Tercio was broken. The [[Truce of Ulm (1647)]] and the [[Peace of Westphalia]] (1648) brought an end to the war.<ref name="autogenerated6"/>

France was hit by civil unrest known as [[The Fronde]] which in turn evolved into the [[Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)|Franco-Spanish War]] in 1653. Louis II de Bourbon joined the Spanish army this time, but suffered a severe defeat at [[Battle of the Dunes (1658)|Dunkirk]] (1658) by Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne. The terms for the peace inflicted upon the Spanish kingdoms in the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] (1659) were harsh, as France annexed Northern Catalonia.<ref name="autogenerated6"/>

=== Colonies (16th and 17th centuries) ===
{{Main|French colonial empire}}
During the 16th century, the king began to claim North American territories and [[French colonization of the Americas|established several colonies]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hodson |first1=Christopher |last2=Rushforth |first2=Brett |date=January 2010 |title=Absolutely Atlantic: Colonialism and the Early Modern French State in Recent Historiography |journal=[[History Compass]] |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=101–117 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00635.x}}</ref> [[Jacques Cartier]] was one of the great explorers who ventured deep into American territories during the 16th century.

The early 17th century saw the first successful French settlements in the New World with the voyages of [[Samuel de Champlain]] in 1608.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greer |first=Allan |date=2010 |title=National, Transnational, and Hypernational Historiographies: New France Meets Early American History |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/canadian_historical_review/v091/91.4.greer.html |journal=[[Canadian Historical Review]] |series=[[Project MUSE]] |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=695–724 |doi=10.3138/chr.91.4.695}}</ref> The largest settlement was [[New France]]. In 1699, French territorial claims in North America expanded still further, with the foundation of [[Louisiana]].

The French presence in [[Africa]] began in [[Senegal]] in 1626, although formal colonies and trading posts were not established until 1659 with the founding of Saint-Louis. The first French settlement of [[Madagascar]] began in 1642 with the establishment of Fort Dauphin.

=== Louis XIV (1643–1715) ===
{{Main|Louis XIV of France}}
[[File:Ruiterportret Lodewijk XIV.jpg|thumb|[[Louis XIV of France]], the "Sun King"]]
[[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], known as the "Sun King", reigned over France from 1643 until 1715. Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from Paris, sought to eliminate remnants of feudalism in France, and subjugated and weakened the aristocracy. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution. However, Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury.<ref name="iearn1">{{Cite web |last=Vincze |first=Gabor |title=Count Miklós Zrínyi, the Poet-Warlord |url=http://www.iearn.hu/balkans/bpeople/zrinyi.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103204905/http://www.iearn.hu/balkans/bpeople/zrinyi.htm |archive-date=2009-01-03 |website=The Balkans In Our Eyes |language=en}}</ref>

The French-dominated [[League of the Rhine]] fought against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] at the [[Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664)|Battle of Saint Gotthard]] in 1664.<ref name="iearn1"/> France fought the [[War of Devolution]] against [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]] in 1667. France's defeat of Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden. With the [[Dutch Republic]] they formed the [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]] to check Louis XIV's expansion. Louis II de Bourbon had captured [[Franche-Comté]], but in face of an indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|peace of Aachen]].{{Sfnp|Wolf|1968}} War broke out again between France and the Dutch Republic in the [[Franco-Dutch War]] (1672–78). France attacked the Dutch Republic and was joined by England in this conflict. Through targeted inundations of [[polder]]s by breaking dykes, the French invasion of the Dutch Republic was brought to a halt.<ref name="autogenerated706">{{Cite journal |last1=Ó Gráda |first1=Cormac |last2=Chevet |first2=Jean-Michel |date=2002 |title=Famine And Market In 'Ancient Régime' France |url=http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/368/3/ogradac_article_pub_039.pdf |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=706–733 |doi=10.1017/S0022050702001055 |doi-broken-date=6 February 2025 |pmid=17494233 |s2cid=8036361 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10197/368}}</ref> The Dutch Admiral [[Michiel de Ruyter]] inflicted a few strategic defeats on the Anglo-French naval alliance and forced [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|England to retire from the war]] in 1674. Because the Netherlands could not resist indefinitely, it agreed to peace in the [[Treaties of Nijmegen]], according to which France would annex France-Comté and acquire further concessions in the Spanish Netherlands.
In May 1682, the royal court moved to the lavish [[Palace of Versailles]], which Louis XIV had greatly expanded. Over time, Louis XIV compelled many members of the nobility, especially the noble elite, to inhabit Versailles. He controlled the nobility with an elaborate system of pensions and privileges, and replaced their power with himself.

Peace did not last, and war between France and Spain again resumed.<ref name="autogenerated706"/> The [[War of the Reunions]] broke out (1683–84), and again Spain, with its ally the Holy Roman Empire, was defeated. Meanwhile, in October 1685 Louis signed the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] ordering the destruction of all Protestant churches and schools in France. Its immediate consequence was a large Protestant exodus from France. Over two million people died in two famines in 1693 and 1710.<ref name="autogenerated706"/>

France would soon be involved in another war, the [[War of the Grand Alliance]]. This time the theatre was not only in Europe but also in North America. Although the war was long and difficult (it was also called the Nine Years' War), its results were inconclusive. The [[Treaty of Ryswick]] in 1697 confirmed French sovereignty over [[Alsace]], yet rejected its claims to [[Luxembourg]]. Louis also had to evacuate [[Catalonia]] and the [[Electorate of the Palatinate|Palatinate]]. This peace was considered a truce by all sides, thus war was to start again.{{Sfnp|Wolf|1968}}
[[File:France 1552-1798.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|The expansion of France, 1552 to 1798]]
In 1701, the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] began. The Bourbon [[Philip V of Spain|Philip of Anjou]] was designated heir to the throne of Spain as Philip V. The Habsburg [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Leopold]] opposed a Bourbon succession, because the power that such a succession would bring to the Bourbon rulers of France would disturb the delicate [[balance of power in international relations|balance of power]] in Europe. Therefore, he claimed the Spanish thrones for himself.{{Sfnp|Wolf|1968}} England and the Dutch Republic joined Leopold against Louis XIV and Philip of Anjou. They inflicted a few resounding defeats on the French army; the [[Battle of Blenheim]] in 1704 was the first major land battle lost by France since its victory at Rocroi in 1643. Yet, the extremely bloody battles of [[Battle of Ramillies|Ramillies]] (1706) and [[Battle of Malplaquet|Malplaquet]] (1709) proved to be [[Pyrrhic victory|Pyrrhic victories]] for the allies, as they had lost too many men to continue the war.{{Sfnp|Wolf|1968}} Led by [[Claude Louis Hector de Villars|Villars]], French forces recovered much of the lost ground in battles such as [[Battle of Denain|Denain]] (1712). Finally, a compromise was achieved with the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in 1713. Philip of Anjou was confirmed as Philip V, king of Spain; Emperor Leopold did not get the throne, but Philip V was barred from inheriting France.{{Sfnp|Wolf|1968}}

Louis XIV wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, and invited [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] to establish the [[French opera]].

The wars were so expensive, and so inconclusive, that although France gained some territory to the east, its enemies gained more strength than it did. Vauban, France's leading military strategist, warned the King in 1689 that a hostile "Alliance" was too powerful at sea. He recommended the best way for France to fight back was to license French merchants ships to privateer and seize enemy merchant ships, while avoiding its navies.<ref>{{Cite book |title=War, Diplomacy, and Imperialism, 1618–1763 |date=1974 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-3331-6633-8 |editor-last=Simcox |editor-first=Geoffrey |pages=236–237}}</ref> Vauban was pessimistic about France's so-called friends and allies and recommended against expensive land wars, or hopeless naval wars.{{Sfnp|Simcox|1974|pp=237, 242}}

=== Major changes in France, Europe, and North America (1718–1783) ===
{{Main|Seven Years' War}}
{{See also|French colonization of the Americas|Age of Enlightenment}}
Louis XIV died in 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson who reigned as [[Louis XV]] until his death in 1774. In 1718, France was once again at war, as [[Philippe II, Duke of Orléans|Philip II of Orléans]]'s regency joined the [[War of the Quadruple Alliance]] against Spain.{{Sfnp|Le Roy Ladurie|1999}} In 1733 another war broke in central Europe, this time about the [[War of the Polish Succession|Polish succession]], and France joined the war against the Austrian Empire. Peace was settled in the [[Treaty of Vienna (1738)]], according to which France would annex, through inheritance, the [[Lorraine (duchy)|Duchy of Lorraine]].{{Sfnp|Le Roy Ladurie|1999}}

Two years later, in 1740, war broke out over the [[War of the Austrian Succession|Austrian succession]], and France seized the opportunity to join the conflict. The war played out in North America and India as well as Europe, and inconclusive terms were agreed to in the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)]]. [[Prussia]] was then becoming a new threat, as it had gained substantial territory from Austria. This led to the [[Diplomatic Revolution|Diplomatic Revolution of 1756]], in which the alliances seen during the previous war were mostly inverted. France was now allied to Austria and Russia, while Britain was now allied to Prussia.<ref name="Marston">{{Cite book |last=Marston |first=Daniel |title=The Seven Years' War |date=2001 |author-link=Daniel Marston (historian)}}</ref>

In the North American theatre, France was allied with various Native American peoples during the [[Seven Years' War]] and, despite a temporary success at the battles of [[Battle of the Great Meadows|the Great Meadows]] and [[Battle of the Monongahela|Monongahela]], French forces were defeated at the disastrous [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] in Quebec. In 1762, Russia, France, and Austria were on the verge of crushing Prussia, when the [[Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)|Anglo-Prussian Alliance]] was saved by the [[Miracle of the House of Brandenburg]]. At sea, naval defeats against British fleets at [[Battle of Lagos|Lagos]] and [[Battle of Quiberon Bay|Quiberon Bay]] in 1759 and a crippling blockade forced France to keep its ships in port. Finally peace was concluded in the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]], and France lost its North American empire.<ref name=Marston/>

[[File:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg|thumb|[[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] surrenders at [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]] to American and French allies.]]
[[Great Britain in the Seven Years' War|Britain's success in the Seven Years' War]] had allowed them to eclipse France as the leading colonial power. France sought revenge for this defeat, and under [[Étienne François, duc de Choiseul|Choiseul]] France started to rebuild. In 1766, the French Kingdom annexed Lorraine and the following year bought [[History of Corsica|Corsica]] from [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]]. Having lost its colonial empire, France saw a good opportunity for revenge against Britain in [[Anglo-French War (1778–83)|signing an alliance with the Americans in 1778, and sending an army and navy]] that turned the [[American Revolution]] into a world war. [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|Admiral de Grasse]] defeated a British fleet at [[Battle of the Chesapeake|Chesapeake Bay]] while [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau]] and [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette]] joined American forces in defeating the British at [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]]. The war was concluded by the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]]; the United States became independent. The British [[Royal Navy]] scored a major victory over France in 1782 at the [[Battle of the Saintes]] and France finished the war with huge debts and the minor gain of the island of [[Tobago]].<ref name="autogenerated1985">{{Cite book |last=Dull |first=Jonathan R. |title=A Diplomatic History of American Revolution |date=1985}}</ref>

=== French Enlightenment ===
{{Main|Age of Enlightenment}}
[[File:Encyclopedie de D'Alembert et Diderot - Premiere Page - ENC 1-NA5.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Cover of the [[Encyclopédie]]]]

The "[[Philosophes]]" were 18th-century French intellectuals who dominated the [[French Enlightenment]] and were influential across Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Reill |first1=Peter Hanns |title=Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment |last2=Wilson |first2=Ellen Judy |date=2004 |edition=2nd}}</ref> The philosopher [[Denis Diderot]] was [[editor-in-chief]] of the famous Enlightenment accomplishment, the 72,000-article ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' (1751–72).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Comsa |first=Maria Teodora |display-authors=et al |date=2016 |title=The French Enlightenment Network |journal=[[Journal of Modern History]] |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=495–534 |doi=10.1086/687927 |s2cid=151445740}}</ref> It sparked a revolution in learning throughout the enlightened world.{{Sfnp|Wilson|1972}}

In the early part of the 18th century the movement was dominated by [[Voltaire]] and [[Montesquieu]]. Around 1750 the Philosophes reached their most influential period, as [[Montesquieu]] published ''Spirit of Laws'' (1748) and [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] published ''Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences'' (1750). The leader of the French Enlightenment and a writer of enormous influence across Europe, was [[Voltaire]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire |date=2009 |editor-last=Cronk |editor-first=Nicholas}}</ref>

Astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and technology flourished. French chemists such as [[Antoine Lavoisier]] worked to replace the archaic units of weights and measures by a coherent scientific system. Lavoisier also formulated the law of [[Conservation of mass]] and discovered oxygen and hydrogen.{{Sfnp|Roche|1998|loc=Ch. 15}}