Editing History of China (section)

===Early imperial China===
====Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)====
{{main|Qin dynasty}}
[[File:Terracotta Army-China2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The massive [[Terracotta Army]] of [[Qin Shi Huang]], a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]]]

Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty ({{lang|zh-hant|秦朝}}) in 221 BC effectively formalised the region as a true empire for the first time in Chinese history, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to "Qin" ({{lang|zh-hant|秦}}) later evolving into the Western term "{{linktext|China}}".{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=20}} To emphasise his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself {{transliteration|zh|[[Qin Shi Huang|Shi Huangdi]]}} ({{linktext|始|皇|帝}}; "First Emperor"); the {{transliteration|zh|[[Emperor of China|Huangdi]]}} title, derived from [[Chinese mythology]], became the standard for subsequent rulers.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=53}}{{efn|In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply {{transliteration|zh|Shi Huangdi}}, but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. In its fullest form, Ying's name would be Qin Shi Huangdi ({{lang|zh-hant|秦始皇帝}}), though it is commonly abbreviated to [[Qin Shi Huang]] ({{lang|zh-hant|秦始皇}}).{{sfn|Wilkinson|2018|p=287}}}} Based in [[Xianyang]], the empire was a centralized bureaucratic monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China.{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=60}}{{sfn|Sanft|2019|p=15}} In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]] ({{lang|zh-hant|郡}}; {{transliteration|zh|jun}}),{{efn|The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s description of the Qin including of 36 [[Commandery (China)|commanderies]] has now been disproven by archaeological evidence indicating more. The exact number is unknown;{{sfn|Sanft|2019|pp=16–17}} The sinologist [[Derk Bodde]] noted that probably "four and possibly as many as half a dozen were added by 210 to the original thirty-six".{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=55}}}} made up of [[Counties of China|counties]] ({{lang|zh-hant|县}}; {{transliteration|zh|xian}}) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader.{{sfn|Sanft|2019|pp=15–17}}

Many aspects of society were informed by [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], a state ideology promoted by the emperor and his [[Grand chancellor (China)|chancellor]] [[Li Si]] that was introduced at an earlier time by [[Shang Yang]].{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=58–59}} In legal matters this philosophy emphasised mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments for crime, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=58–59}} Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles ([[seal script]]) and metal currency ([[Ban Liang]]), all of which were standardized.{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=61}}{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=56–57, 59–60}} Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as ordering a [[Burning of books and burying of scholars|mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars]] under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the [[Burning of books and burying of scholars#Skepticism|historicity of this event]].{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=58–59}} Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by [[Confucianism]] for social and moral beliefs and the five-element [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wuxing]] ({{lang|zh-hant|五行}}) theories for [[cosmology|cosmological]] thought.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=75–78}}

The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence.{{sfn|Sanft|2019|p=17}} Commoners, who made up over 90% of the population,{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=102}} "suffered harsh treatment" according to the historian [[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects.{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=63}} This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around {{convert|4250|mi|km}} altogether.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=61}} Other major construction projects were assigned to the general [[Meng Tian]], who concurrently [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu|led a successful campaign]] against the northern [[Xiongnu]] peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=61}}{{efn|Other tribes of the north, collectively called the [[Five Barbarians|Wu Hu]] by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty.{{sfn|Lewis|2007|p=129}}}} Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the [[Great Wall of China]] and oversaw the building of a {{convert|500|mi|km}} straight highway between northern and southern China.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=60–61}} The emperor also oversaw the construction of his [[Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor|monumental mausoleum]], which includes the well known [[Terracotta Army]].{{sfn|Bodde|1986|pp=82–83}}

After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire.{{sfn|Bodde|1986|p=84}}{{sfn|Sanft|2019|pp=22–24}}

====Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)====
{{main|Han dynasty}}
{{further|History of the Han dynasty}}

=====Western Han=====
[[File:Han Expansion.png|thumb|left|250px|Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC]]

The Han dynasty was founded by [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Liu Bang]], who emerged victorious in the [[Chu–Han Contention]] that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A [[Pax Sinica|golden age]] in Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the [[China proper]] and to areas far west. [[Confucianism]] was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the [[Han Chinese|dominant ethnic group]] in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and [[Chinese characters|written characters]].

After the [[Huang-Lao|initial laissez-faire policies]] of Emperors [[Emperor Wen of Han|Wen]] and [[Emperor Jing of Han|Jing]], the ambitious [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands.{{sfnp|Nylan|2016| pages=76–79, 84, 107–108}} As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society. [[Taixue|Imperial Universities]] were established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the dynasty [[Economy of the Han Dynasty#Private manufacture and government monopolies|with government monopolies]].
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = '''Left image''': Western-Han painted ceramic jar decorated with raised [[relief]]s of [[Chinese dragon|dragons]], [[Fenghuang|phoenixes]], and ''[[taotie]]''<br/> '''Right image''': Reverse side of a Western-Han [[TLV mirror|bronze mirror]] with painted designs of a flower motif| footer_align = left | image1 = China qing blue.JPG | width1 = 130| caption1  = | image2 = Bronze mirror with painted designs, Western Han.jpg| width2 = 120| caption2 = }}

[[Han–Xiongnu War|Major military campaigns]] were launched to weaken the nomadic [[Xiongnu|Xiongnu Empire]], limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by [[Zhang Qian]], the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the [[Western Regions|states in the Tarim Basin]], opened up the [[Silk Road]] that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire.

Emperor Wu also dispatched a [[southward expansion of the Han dynasty|series of military campaigns]] against the [[Baiyue]] tribes. The Han annexed [[Han campaigns against Minyue|Minyue in 135 BC]] and 111 BC, [[Han–Nanyue War|Nanyue in 111 BC]], and [[Han campaign against Dian|Dian in 109 BC]].{{sfn|Yu|1986|pp=455–458}} Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south.<ref>{{cite book|first=Pingfang|last=Xu|title=The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective|year=2005|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-09382-7|page=281}}</ref> It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jacques|last=Gernet|title=A History of Chinese Civilization|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-49781-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/126 126–127]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/126}}</ref>

After Emperor Wu the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various [[consort clan]]s exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of [[Wang Mang]].

==== Xin dynasty ====
{{main|Xin dynasty}}

In AD 9 the usurper [[Wang Mang]] claimed that the [[Mandate of Heaven]] called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the [[Yellow River]]; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in [[Weiyang Palace]] by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.

==== Eastern Han ====
[[Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu]] reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at [[Luoyang]], ''east'' of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the [[Eastern Han dynasty]]. With the capable administrations of Emperors [[Emperor Ming of Han|Ming]] and [[Emperor Zhang of Han|Zhang]], former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The [[Xiongnu|Xiongnu Empire]] was [[Han–Xiongnu War#Final stages|decisively defeated]]. The diplomat and general [[Ban Chao]] further expanded the conquests across the [[Pamirs]] to the shores of the [[Caspian Sea]],<ref>{{ cite journal
| pages = 165–184
| jstor = 40727536
| journal= Monumenta Serica
| publisher= Taylor & Francis
| volume= 54 | year = 2006
| last = So | first= Francis K.H. (蘇其康)
| title= Travels, contact, and conversion: Chinese rediscovery of the West
| doi = 10.1179/mon.2006.54.1.006
| s2cid = 190841108
}}</ref>{{rp|175}} thus reopening the [[Silk Road]], and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the [[Chinese Buddhism#Traditional accounts|arrival of Buddhism]]. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several [[Romano-Chinese relations|Roman embassies to China]] were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.

The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the [[Science and technology of the Han dynasty|most prolific eras of science and technology]] in ancient China, notably the historic invention of [[papermaking]] by [[Cai Lun]], and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous [[polymath]] [[Zhang Heng]].