Editing Hierarchical organization (section)

==Criticism and alternatives==
The work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]] (1928–2018) makes important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]]. James famously asserts in his work on [[radical empiricism]] that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. A hesitation to declare success upon the discovery of ambiguities leaves heterarchy at an artificial and subjective disadvantage in the scope of human knowledge. This bias is an artifact of an aesthetic or pedagogical preference for hierarchy, and not necessarily an expression of objective observation.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Hierarchies and hierarchical thinking have been criticized by many people, including [[Susan McClary]] (born 1946), and by one political philosophy which vehemently opposes hierarchical organization: [[anarchism]]. [[Heterarchy]], the most commonly proposed alternative to hierarchy, has been combined with responsible autonomy by [[Gerard Fairtlough]] in his work on [[Triarchy (theory)|triarchy theory]]. The most beneficial aspect of a hierarchical organization is the clear command-structure that it establishes. However, hierarchy may become dismantled by [[abuse of power]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Vredenburgh|first1= Donald|last2= Brender|first2= Yael|date= 1998|title= The Hierarchical Abuse of Power in Work Organizations|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25073966|journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume= 17|issue= 12|pages= 1337–1347|doi= 10.1023/A:1005775326249|jstor= 25073966|s2cid= 142827641|issn= 0167-4544}}</ref>

[[Matrix management|Matrix organizations]] became a trend (or [[management fad]]) in the second half of the 20th century.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Shahani
 |first1               = Jasmine
 |date                 = 30 October 2020
 |title                = Limits and Opportunities of a Matrix Organization: A Study of Coordination Mechanisms within a Multiple Brand Organization
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=XmMGEAAAQBAJ
 |series               = Volume 149 of AutoUni – Schriftenreihe
 |publication-place    = Wiesbaden
 |publisher            = Springer Nature
 |isbn                 = 9783658322618
 |access-date          = 30 March 2023
 |quote                = The literature on matrix organizations presents a challenge due to the fact that most of it is outdated and little current research can be found based on empirical evidence. This is due to a management fad which led to the matrix gaining popularity before losing consideration both in practice and academia. [...] matrix organizations, and simultaneously their study, followed a clear management fad. They were hastily adopted and promptly abandoned [...].
}} 
</ref>

Amidst constant innovation in [[Information and communications technology|information and communication technologies]], hierarchical authority structures are giving way to greater [[decision-making]] latitude for individuals and more flexible definitions of job activities; and this new style of work presents a challenge to existing organizational forms, with some{{quantify|date=March 2023}} research studies contrasting traditional organizational forms with groups that operate as [[online community|online communities]] that are characterized by personal motivation and the satisfaction of making one's own decisions.<ref>
{{cite book
| url          = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221177012
| last1         = Zhao
| first1        = Dejin
| last2        = Rosson
| first2       = Mary Beth
| author-link2 = Mary Beth Rosson
| last3        = Purao
| first3       = Sandeep
| title = 2007 40th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS'07)
| chapter = The Future of Work: What Does Online Community Have to do with It?
| publisher    = 40th Hawaii International International Conference on Systems Science (HICSS-40 2007), CD-ROM / Abstracts Proceedings, 3–6 January 2007, Waikoloa, Big Island, HI, USA
| date         = January 2007
| website      = ResearchGate
| pages = 180a
| doi          = 10.1109/HICSS.2007.531
| isbn = 978-0-7695-2755-0
| s2cid = 11575408
| access-date  = 30 March 2023
| quote        = Abstract[:]  Amidst constant innovation in information and communication technologies, a new pattern of work is emerging. Hierarchical authority structures are giving way to greater decision-making latitude for individuals and more flexible definitions of job activities [...]. This new style of work presents a challenge to existing organizational forms. In this paper we investigate this concern by contrasting traditional organizational forms against groups that operate as online communities that are characterized by personal motivation and the satisfaction of making one's own decisions.
}}
</ref>
When all levels of a hierarchical organization have access to information and communication via digital means, [[power structure]]s may align more as a [[wirearchy]], enabling the flow of power and authority to be based not on hierarchical levels, but on information, trust, credibility, and a focus on results.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}