Editing Hedonism (section)

==History==
=== Ancient ===
[[File:Aristippus.jpg|thumb|alt=Picture of Aristippus|[[Aristippus of Cyrene]] is often seen as the first proponent of philosophical hedonism.]]

Hedonism is one of the oldest philosophical theories and some interpreters trace it back to the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], written around 2100–2000 BCE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Porter|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MCRZ3AlBDJ4C&pg=PA94 94]}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Forgas|Baumeister|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DipKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1951 Philosophical Antecedents]}} | {{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|p=161}} }}</ref> It was a central topic in [[Ancient Greek philosophy|ancient Greek thought]], where [[Aristippus of Cyrene]] (435-356 BCE) is usually identified as its earliest philosophical proponent. As a student of [[Socrates]] ({{circa|469–399 BCE}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=178}}</ref> he formulated a hedonistic egoism, arguing that personal pleasure is the highest good. He and the school of [[Cyrenaics]] he inspired focused on the gratification of immediate sensory pleasures with little concern for long-term consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 2b. Aristippus and the Cyrenaics}} | {{harvnb|Brandt|2006|p=255}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|2005|p=364}} | {{harvnb|Feldman|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KfeOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA664 664–665]}} }}</ref> [[Plato]] ({{circa|428–347 BCE}})<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=156}}</ref> critiqued this view and proposed a more balanced pursuit of pleasure that aligns with virtue and rationality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Taylor|2005|p=364}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}} }}</ref> Following a similar approach, [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=13}}</ref> associated pleasure with [[eudaimonia]] or the realization of natural human capacities, like reason.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Taylor|2005|p=365}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}} }}</ref>

[[Epicurus]] (341–271 BCE) developed a nuanced form of hedonism that contrasts with the indulgence in immediate gratification proposed by the Cyrenaics. He argued that excessive desires result in anxiety and suffering, suggesting instead that people practice moderation, cultivate a [[ataraxia|tranquil state of mind]], and avoid pain.<ref name="auto2"/> Following [[Antisthenes]] ({{circa|446—366 BCE}}), the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] warned against the pursuit of pleasure, viewing it as an obstacle to freedom.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Piering|loc=§ 2. Basic Tenets}} }}</ref> The [[Stoics]] also dismissed a hedonistic lifestyle, focusing on virtue and integrity instead of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Pigliucci|loc=§ 1d. Debates with Other Hellenistic Schools}} }}</ref> [[Lucretius]] ({{circa|99–55 BCE}}) further expanded on Epicureanism, highlighting the importance of overcoming obstacles to personal happiness, such as the fear of death.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Simpson|loc=§ 2b.iii. Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Ewin|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KrpEdzoEktQC&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Asmis|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpByDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 142–143]}} }}</ref>

In [[ancient India]], the [[Charvaka]] school developed a hedonistic egoism, starting between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. Their belief in the [[Atheism|non-existence of God]] or an [[afterlife]] led them to advocate for enjoying life in the present to the fullest. Many other Indian traditions rejected this view and recommended a more ascetic lifestyle, a tendency common among [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], and [[Jainism|Jain]] schools of thought.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 2a. Cārvāka}} | {{harvnb|Riepe|1956|pp=551–552}} | {{harvnb|Turner-Lauck Wernicki|loc=§ 2b. Materialism as Heresy}} | {{harvnb|Wilson|2015|loc=§ Introduction}} }}</ref> In ancient China, [[Yang Zhu]] ({{circa|440–360 BCE}}){{efn|Some interpreters question whether Yang Zhu is a historical or a mythical figure.<ref>{{harvnb|Norden|Ivanhoe|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z663EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111]}}</ref>}} argued that it is human nature to follow self-interest and satisfy personal desires. His hedonistic egoism inspired the subsequent school of [[Yangism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Roetz|1993|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BV2NjFqsUTEC&pg=PA243 243–244]}} | {{harvnb|Norden|Ivanhoe|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z663EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111]}} }}</ref>

=== Medieval ===
Hedonist philosophy received less attention in [[medieval philosophy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}}</ref> The early Christian philosopher [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430 CE),<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=16}}</ref> was critical of the hedonism found in ancient Greek philosophy, warning of the dangers of earthly pleasures as obstacles to a spiritual life dedicated to God.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rist|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7YeKchlhn7MC&pg=PA158 158]}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Shelton|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9YTXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 143]}} }}</ref> [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274 CE) developed a nuanced perspective on hedonism, characterized by some interpreters as spiritual hedonism. He held that humans are naturally inclined to seek happiness, arguing that the only way to truly satisfy this inclination is through a [[beatific vision]] of God.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dewan|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9RwKiqay4h4C&pg=PA101 101–103]}} | {{harvnb|Wieland|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PtLyH02x60MC&pg=PA59 59]}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GbcuCf9TlDgC&pg=PA350 350]}} }}</ref> In [[Islamic philosophy]], the problem of pleasure played a central role in the philosophy of [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|al-Razi]] ({{circa|864—925 or 932 CE}}). Similar to Epicureanism, he recommended a life of moderation avoiding the extremes of excess and [[asceticism]].<ref name="auto5">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goodman|2020|pp=387–389}} | {{harvnb|Adamson|2021|loc=§ 3. Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Adamson|2021a|pp=5–6, 177–178}} }}</ref>{{efn|It is controversial whether al-Razi's position is a form of hedonism.<ref name="auto5"/>}} Both [[al-Farabi]] ({{circa|878–950 CE}})<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=63}}</ref> and [[Avicenna]] (980–1037 CE)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=19}}</ref> asserted that a form of intellectual happiness, reachable only in the afterlife, is the highest human good.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Germann|2021|loc=§ 2.1 Happiness and the afterlife}} | {{harvnb|McGinnis|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M28EjkCdFecC&pg=PA209 209–210]}} }}</ref>

=== Modern and contemporary ===
At the transition to the early modern period, [[Lorenzo Valla]] ({{circa|1406–1457}}) synthesized Epicurean hedonism with [[Christian ethics]], suggesting that earthly pleasures associated with the senses are stepping stones to heavenly pleasures associated with Christian virtues.<ref>{{harvnb|Nauta|2021|loc=§ 4. Moral Philosophy}}</ref> Hedonism gained prominence during the [[Age of Enlightenment]].<ref>{{harvnb|Blakemore|Jennett|2001|loc=§ Pleasure and the Enlightenment}}</ref> According to [[Thomas Hobbes]]'s (1588–1679)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=88}}</ref> psychological hedonism, self-interest in what is pleasant is the root of all human motivation.<ref name="auto3"/> [[John Locke]] (1632–1704) stated that pleasure and pain are the only sources of good and evil.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sheridan|2024|loc=§ 1.1 The puzzle of Locke’s moral philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Rossiter|2016|pp=203, 207–208}} }}</ref> [[Joseph Butler]] (1692–1752) formulated an objection to psychological hedonism, arguing that most desires, like wanting food or ambition, are not directed at pleasure itself but at external objects.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stewart|1992|pp=211–214}} | {{harvnb|Garrett|2023|loc=§ 5. Self-Love and Benevolence}} }}</ref> According to [[David Hume]] (1711–1776),<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=91}}</ref> pleasure and pain are both the measure of ethical value and the main motivators fueling the passions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blakemore|Jennett|2001|loc=§ Pleasure and the Enlightenment}} | {{harvnb|Dorsey|2015|pp=245–246}} | {{harvnb|Merivale|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IjZ7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 § 3.1. The Prospect of Pain or Pleasure]}} }}</ref> The [[libertine]] novels of [[Marquis de Sade]] (1740–1814) depicted an extreme form of hedonism, emphasizing full indulgence in pleasurable activities without moral or [[sexual restraint]].<ref>{{harvnb|Airaksinen|1995|pp=11, 78–80}}</ref>

[[File:Jeremy Bentham by Henry William Pickersgill detail.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Jeremy Bentham|[[Jeremy Bentham]] formulated a universal form of hedonism that takes everyone's pleasure into account.]]

[[Jeremy Bentham]] (1748–1832)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=25}}</ref> developed an influential form of hedonism known as [[classical utilitarianism]]. One of his key innovations was the rejection of egoistic hedonism, advocating instead that individuals should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people. He introduced the idea of the [[hedonic calculus]] to assess the value of an action based on the pleasurable and painful experiences it causes, relying on factors such as intensity and duration.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 3a. Bentham}} | {{harvnb|Moore|2019|loc=§ 2.1 Ethical Hedonism and the Nature of Pleasure}} | {{harvnb|Feldman|2001|p=666}} }}</ref> His student [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=132}}</ref> feared that Bentham's quantitative focus on intensity and duration would lead to an overemphasis on simple sensory pleasures. In response, he included the quality of pleasures as an additional factor, arguing that higher pleasures of the mind are more valuable than lower pleasures of the body.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weijers|loc=§ 3b. Mill}} | {{harvnb|Moore|2019|loc=§ 2.1 Ethical Hedonism and the Nature of Pleasure}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}} }}</ref> [[Henry Sidgwick]] (1838–1900) further refined utilitarianism and clarified many of its core distinctions, such as the contrast between ethical and psychological hedonism and between egoistic and impartial hedonism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|pp=26–27}} | {{harvnb|Schultz|2024|loc=Lead section, § 2.2 Reconstruction and Reconciliation}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}} }}</ref>

[[Friedrich Nietzsche]] (1844–1900)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=144}}</ref> rejected ethical hedonism and emphasized the importance of excellence and self-overcoming instead, stating that suffering is necessary to achieve greatness rather than something to be avoided.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hassan|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Cz_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 227]}} | {{harvnb|Faustino|2024|loc=§ 2.1 Ethical Hedonism}} }}</ref> An influential view about the nature of pleasure was developed by [[Franz Brentano]] (1838–1917).<ref>{{harvnb|Kriegel|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3e9IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}</ref> He dismissed the idea that pleasure is a sensation located in a specific area of the body, proposing instead that pleasure is a positive attitude that people can have towards various objects{{efn|According to this view, for instance, the pleasure of reading a novel is a positive attitude towards the novel.<ref>{{harvnb|Massin|2013|pp=[https://brill.com/display/book/9789401209939/B9789401209939-s018.xml 307–308]}}</ref>}}{{em dash}}a position also later defended by [[Roderick Chisholm]] (1916–1999).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Feldman|2001|p=668}} | {{harvnb|Massin|2013|pp=[https://brill.com/display/book/9789401209939/B9789401209939-s018.xml 307–308]}} | {{harvnb|Moore|2019|loc=§ 2.1 Ethical Hedonism and the Nature of Pleasure}} }}</ref> [[Sigmund Freud]] (1856–1939) developed a form of psychological hedonism in his early [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic theory]]. He stated that the [[Pleasure principle (psychology)|pleasure principle]] describes how individuals seek immediate pleasure while avoiding pain whereas the [[reality principle]] represents the ability to postpone immediate gratification to avoid unpleasant long-term consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wallwork|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5hf_KTvrypAC&pg=PA115 115]}} | {{harvnb|Vittersø|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=snys_ihoEigC&pg=PA475 475]}} }}</ref>

The 20th century saw various criticisms of hedonism.<ref>{{harvnb|Crisp|2011|pp=43–44}}</ref> [[G. E. Moore]] (1873–1958)<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=443}}</ref> rejected the hedonistic idea that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value. According to his [[Value theory#Monism and pluralism|axiological pluralism]], there are other sources, such as [[beauty]] and [[knowledge]],<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hurka|2021|loc=§ 4. The Ideal}} | {{harvnb|Gosling|1998|loc=§ 1. History and Varieties of Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Moore|2019|loc=§ 2.3 Other Arguments Against Ethical Hedonism}} | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|p=43}} }}</ref> a criticism also shared by [[W. D. Ross]] (1877–1971).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Skelton|2022|loc=§ 4.2 The Good}} | {{harvnb|Mason|2023|loc=§ 1.1 Foundational and Non-foundational Pluralism}} | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|p=43}} }}</ref> Both [[C. D. Broad]] (1887–1971) and [[Richard Brandt]] (1910–1997) held that malicious pleasures, like enjoying the suffering of others, do not have inherent value.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|pp=43–44}} | {{harvnb|Hurka|2011a|p=73}} | {{harvnb|Feldman|2002|p=616}} | {{harvnb|Feldman|2004|p=38}} }}</ref> [[Robert Nozick]] (1938–2002) used his [[experience machine]] thought experiment about simulated pleasure to argue against traditional hedonism, which ignores whether there is an authentic connection between pleasure and reality.<ref name="auto4"/>

In response to these and similar criticisms, [[Fred Feldman]] (1941–present) has developed a modified form of hedonism. Drawing on Brentano's attitudinal theory of pleasure, he has defended the idea that even though pleasure is the only source of intrinsic goodness, its value must be adjusted based on whether it is appropriate or deserved.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Feldman|2004|pp=120–123}} | {{harvnb|McLeod|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q8w3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 § 3. Justice-adjusted Utilitarianism, § 7. Revising Feldman's Desert-value Principles]}} }}</ref> [[Peter Singer]] (1946–present) has expanded classical hedonism to include concerns about [[animal welfare]].{{efn|Singer was initially a proponent of [[preference utilitarianism]] but has shifted his position in favor of hedonistic utilitarianism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rice|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zZdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA379 379]}} | {{harvnb|Schultz|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fQVpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA514 514]}} }}</ref>}} He has advocated [[effective altruism]], relying on [[empirical evidence]] and reason to prioritize actions that have the most significant positive impact.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schultz|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fQVpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA514 514]}} | {{harvnb|Fesmire|2020|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5vzvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT33 § Ends, the Good, and Wisdom]}} | {{harvnb|Miligan|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TEjLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}} }}</ref> Inspired by the philosophy of [[Albert Camus]] (1913–1960), [[Michel Onfray]] (1959–present) has aimed to rehabilitate Epicurean hedonism in a modern form.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McClellan|2015|pp=xviii–xx}} | {{harvnb|Bishop|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IYLPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110–112]}} }}</ref> [[David Pearce (philosopher)|David Pearce]] (1959–present) has developed a [[transhumanist]] version of hedonism, arguing for the use of modern technology, ranging from [[genetic engineering]] to [[nanotechnology]], to reduce suffering and possibly eliminate it in the future.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Adams IV|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ygIiRL7mQBkC&pg=PA167 167]}} | {{harvnb|Ross|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jy3fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 134]}} }}</ref> The emergence of [[positive psychology]] at the turn of the 21st century has led to an increased interest in the empirical exploration of various topics of hedonism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|p=44}} | {{harvnb|Peterson|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FGpIA9RmCngC&pg=PA4 4–5, 78]}} }}</ref>