Editing German philosophy (section)

===German Romanticism===
[[Immanuel Kant]]'s [[Critique of Pure Reason|criticism of rationalism]] was a source of influence for early Romantic thought. [[Johann Georg Hamann|Hamann]]'s and [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]]'s philosophical thoughts were also influential on both the proto-Romantic ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' movement and on Romanticism itself.<ref>{{Cite book|title=История философии, T. III. Философия первой половины XIX века|author1=Aleksandrov, G. F. |author2=Bykhovsky, B. E. |author3=Mitin, B. M. |author4=Yudin, P. F. |publisher=Politizdat|year=1943|publication-place=Moscow|chapter=Гаман, in: Классическая немецкая философия|chapter-url=https://iphras.ru/uplfile//root/biblio/Hist_philos.pdf}}</ref>

The philosophy of [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]] was of pivotal importance for the Romantics. The founder of German Romanticism, [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]], identified the "three sources of Romanticism": the [[French Revolution]], Fichte's philosophy, and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s novel ''[[Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship|Wilhelm Meister]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Literary Encyclopedia|last=Lavretsky|first=A.|publisher=Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya|year=1934|publication-place=Moscow|chapter=The Romantic Period of German Literature|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/art/lit_crit/romanticism/lavretsky.htm|translator-last=P.|translator-first=Anton}}</ref>
	
[[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Von Schelling|Schelling]], who was associated with the [[Friedrich von Schlegel|Schlegel]] [[August Wilhelm von Schlegel|brothers]] in [[Jena Romanticism|Jena]], took many of his philosophical and [[aesthetics|aesthetical]] ideas from the Romantics, and also influenced them on their own views: "In his philosophy of art, Schelling emerged from the subjective boundaries in which Kant concluded aesthetics, referring it only to features of judgment. Schelling's aesthetics, understanding the world as an artistic creation, has adopted a universal character and served as the basis for the teachings of the Romantic school."<ref>{{Cite book|title=История философии, T. III. Философия первой половины XIX века|author1=Aleksandrov, G. F. |author2=Bykhovsky, B. E. |author3=Mitin, B. M. |author4=Yudin, P. F. |publisher=Politizdat|year=1943|publication-place=Moscow|chapter=Шеллинг, in: Классическая немецкая философия|chapter-url=https://iphras.ru/uplfile//root/biblio/Hist_philos.pdf}}</ref> It is argued that Friedrich Schlegel's [[subjectivism]] and his glorification of the superior intellect as property of a select [[elitism|elite]] influenced Schelling's doctrine of [[intellectual intuition]], which [[György Bernát Löwinger|György Lukács]] called "the first manifestation of [[criticism of rationalism|irrationalism]]".<ref name="Lukács 1980">{{Cite book|title=The Destruction of Reason|last=Lukács|first=György|publisher=Merlin Press|year=1980|orig-year=1952|publication-place=London|chapter=Schelling's 'Intellectual Intuition' as the First Manifestation of Irrationalism|chapter-url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4179816/mod_resource/content/1/THE%20DESTRUCTION%20OF%20REASON.pdf|translator-last=Palmer|translator-first=Peter R.}}</ref> As much as [[Jena Romanticism|Early Romanticism]] influenced the young Schelling's ''[[Naturphilosophie]]'' (his interpretation of [[nature]] as an expression of [[Spirit (animating force)|spiritual]] powers), so did Late Romanticism influence the older Schelling's [[mythology|mythological]] and [[mysticism|mysticist]] worldview (''Mysterienlehre'').<ref name="Lukács 1980"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Der Volks-Brockhaus : deutsches Sach- und Sprachwörterbuch fur Schule und Haus : A-Z..|publisher=Verlag F. A. Brockhaus|year=1939|publication-place=Leipzig|chapter=Schelling|chapter-url=https://delibra.bg.polsl.pl/dlibra/publication/39909/edition/36060?}}</ref>
	
According to Lukács, [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]]'s views on philosophy and aesthetics were also an offshoot of Romanticism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Destruction of Reason|last=Lukács|first=György|publisher=Merlin Press|year=1980|orig-year=1952|publication-place=London|chapter=Kierkegaard|chapter-url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4179816/mod_resource/content/1/THE%20DESTRUCTION%20OF%20REASON.pdf|translator-last=Palmer|translator-first=Peter R.}}</ref>

[[File:Schopenhauer.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Arthur Schopenhauer]], a German philosopher]]
[[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] also owed certain features of his philosophy to Romantic [[pessimism]]: "Since salvation from suffering associated with the will is available through art only to a select few, Schopenhauer proposed another, more accessible way of overcoming the "I" – [[Buddhist]] [[Nirvana]]. In essence, Schopenhauer, although he was confident in the innovation of his revelations, did not give anything original here in comparison with the idealization of the [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern]] world outlook by reactionary Romantics – it was indeed [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]] who introduced this idealization in Germany with his ''Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier'' (''About the language and wisdom of the Indians'')."<ref>{{Cite book|title=История философии, T. III. Философия первой половины XIX века|author1=Aleksandrov, G. F. |author2=Bykhovsky, B. E. |author3=Mitin, B. M. |author4=Yudin, P. F. |publisher=Politizdat|year=1943|publication-place=Moscow|chapter=Шопенгауэр, in: Классическая немецкая философия|chapter-url=https://iphras.ru/uplfile//root/biblio/Hist_philos.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Der Volks-Brockhaus : deutsches Sach- und Sprachwörterbuch fur Schule und Haus : A-Z..|publisher=Verlag F. A. Brockhaus|year=1939|publication-place=Leipzig|chapter=Schlegel|chapter-url=https://delibra.bg.polsl.pl/dlibra/publication/39909/edition/36060?}}</ref>
	
In the opinion of [[György Lukács]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s importance as an [[criticism of rationalism|irrationalist]] philosopher lay in that, while his early influences are to be found in Romanticism, he founded a [[modernity|modern]] irrationalism antithetical to that of the Romantics<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Destruction of Reason|last=Lukács|first=György|publisher=Merlin Press|year=1980|orig-year=1952|publication-place=London|chapter=Nietzsche as Founder of Irrationalism in the Imperialist Period|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/destruction-reason/ch03.htm|translator-last=Palmer|translator-first=Peter R.}}</ref> Even in his post-Schopenhauerian period, however, Nietzsche paid some tributes to Romanticism, for example borrowing the title of his book ''[[The Gay Science]]'' (''Die fröhliche Wissenschaft'', 1882–87) from [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]]'s 1799 novel ''Lucinde''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Anasintaxi Newspaper, issue 385|year=2013|chapter=Reactionary German Romanticism|chapter-url=https://translate.google.gr/translate?hl=en&sl=el&u=https://athens.indymedia.org/post/1467916/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Нариси історії західноєвропейської літератури|last=Kogan|first=Pyotr Semyonovich|year=1936|publication-place=Kiev|chapter=Ніцшеанство і символізм. Ібсен. Метерлінк.|chapter-url=https://shron1.chtyvo.org.ua/Kohan_Ptr/Narysy_istorii_zakhidnoievropeiskoi_literatury_Tom_2.pdf?}}</ref>

Lukács also emphasized that the emergence of [[organicism]] in philosophy received its impetus from Romanticism:
	
<blockquote>This view, that only 'organic growth', that is to say change through small and gradual reforms with the consent of the ruling class, was regarded as 'a natural principle', whereas every revolutionary upheaval received the dismissive tag of 'contrary to nature' gained a particularly extensive form in the course of the development of reactionary German romanticism ([[Friedrich Carl von Savigny|Savigny]], the [[German Historical School|historical law school]], etc.). The antithesis of 'organic growth' and 'mechanical fabrication' was now elaborated: it constituted a defence of 'naturally grown' feudal privileges against the praxis of the [[French Revolution]] and the bourgeois ideologies underlying it, which were repudiated as mechanical, highbrow and abstract.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Destruction of Reason|last=Lukács|first=György|publisher=Merlin Press|year=1980|orig-year=1952|publication-place=London|chapter=Beginnings of Racial Theory in the Eighteenth Century, in: Social Darwinism, Racial Theory and Fascism|chapter-url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4179816/mod_resource/content/1/THE%20DESTRUCTION%20OF%20REASON.pdf|translator-last=Palmer|translator-first=Peter R.}}</ref></blockquote>
 	
[[Wilhelm Dilthey]], founder (along with Nietzsche, [[Georg Simmel|Simmel]], and [[Ludwig Klages|Klages]]) of the [[intuition|intuitionist]] and [[criticism of rationalism|irrationalist]] school of ''[[Lebensphilosophie]]'' in Germany, is credited with leading the Romantic revival in [[Romantic hermeneutics|hermeneutics]] of the early 20th century. With his [[Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher|Schleiermacher]] biography and works on [[Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg|Novalis]], [[Friedrich Hölderlin|Hölderlin]], and others, he was one of the initiators of the Romantic renaissance in the [[German Empire|imperial]] period. His discovery and annotation of the young [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]'s manuscripts became crucial to the vitalistic interpretation of Hegelian philosophy in the post-war period; his [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] study likewise ushered in the vitalistic interpretation of Goethe subsequently leading from Simmel and [[Friedrich Gundolf|Gundolf]] to Klages.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Destruction of Reason|last=Lukács|first=György|publisher=Merlin Press|year=1980|orig-year=1952|publication-place=London|chapter=Dilthey as Founder of Imperialistic Vitalism, in: Vitalism ''(Lebensphilosophie)'' in Imperialist Germany|chapter-url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4179816/mod_resource/content/1/THE%20DESTRUCTION%20OF%20REASON.pdf|translator-last=Palmer|translator-first=Peter R.}}</ref>

Passivity was a key element of the Romantic mood in Germany, and it was brought by the Romantics into their own religious and philosophical views. The theologian [[Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiemacher|Schleiermacher]] argued that the true essence of religion lies not in the active love of one’s neighbor, but in the passive contemplation of the infinite. In [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Von Schelling|Schelling]]’s philosophical system, the creative absolute ([[God]]) is immersed in the same passive, motionless state.

The only activity that the Romantics allowed is that in which there is almost no volitional element, that is, artistic creativity. They considered the representatives of art to be the happiest people, and in their works, along with knights chained in armor, poets, painters and musicians usually appear. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Von Schelling|Schelling]] considered an artist to be incomparably higher than a philosopher, because the secret of the world can be guessed from his minutia not by systematic logical thinking, but only by direct artistic intuition ("[[intuition|intellectual intuition]]"). Romantics loved to dream of such legendary countries, where all life with its everyday cares gave way to the eternal holiday of poetry.

The [[quietism (philosophy)|quietist]] and [[aestheticism|aestheticist]] mood of Romanticism, the reflection and idealization of the mood of the [[aristocracy]], again emerges in [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]’s philosophical system ''[[The World As Will and Idea|The World as Will and Representation]],'' ending with a [[philosophical pessimism|pessimistic]] chord. Schopenhauer argued that at the heart of the world and man lies the “[[will to live|will to life]],” which leads them to suffering and boredom, and happiness can be experienced only by those who free themselves from its oppressive domination. Even the artist is freed from the power of the will only temporarily. As soon as he turns into an ordinary mortal, his greedy will again raises its voice and throws him into the embrace of disappointment and boredom. Above the artist stands, therefore, the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] sage or the holy [[asceticism|ascetic]].