Editing Geography of India (section)

==Natural resources==
{{main|Natural resources of India}}

[[Image:Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.JPG|thumb|[[Bhagirathi River]] at [[Gangotri]], source river of the [[Ganges]]]]Major resource-based industries of India are [[Fishery|fisheries]], agriculture, mining, and [[petroleum product]]s . [[India]] has the 18th-largest [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) in the world with a total size of 2,305,143&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (890,021 sq mi). It includes the [[Lakshadweep]] island group in the [[Laccadive Sea]] off the southwestern coast of India and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] and the [[Andaman Sea]].

===Ecological resources ===
[[India]] was ranked seventh among the list of countries most affected by [[climate change]] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Eckstein |first1=David |last2=Künzel |first2=Vera |last3=Schäfer |first3=Laura |date=January 2021 |title=Global Climate Risk Index 2021 |url=https://www.germanwatch.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202021_2.pdf |website=GermanWatch.org}}</ref> Temperature rises on the [[Tibetan Plateau]] are causing [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|Himalayan glaciers to retreat]], threatening the flow rate of the [[Ganges]], [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Yamuna]] and other major rivers. A 2007 [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) report states that the [[Indus River]] may run dry for the same reason.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last= |date=1 Feb 2007 |title=How climate change hits India's poor |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6319921.stm |access-date=10 June 2021 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as [[Assam]].<ref name=":4">{{cite news |date=3 February 2007 |title=Warmer Tibet can see Brahmaputra flood Assam {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/warmer-tibet-can-see-brahmaputra-flood-assam/articleshow/1556649.cms |access-date=2021-03-11 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> Temperatures in India have risen by {{convert|0.7|C-change|1|abbr=on}} between 1901 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sharma |first=Vibha |date=15 June 2020 |title=Average temperature over India projected to rise by 4.4 degrees Celsius: Govt report on impact of climate change in country |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/average-temperature-over-india-projected-to-rise-by-4-4-degrees-celsius-govt-report-on-impact-of-climate-change-in-country-99583 |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[Tribune India]]}}</ref> According to some current projections, the number and severity of [[Drought in India|droughts in India]] will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Vivek |last2=Jain |first2=Manoj Kumar |date=2018 |title=Investigation of multi-model spatiotemporal mesoscale drought projections over India under climate change scenario |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002216941830773X |journal=[[Journal of Hydrology]] |volume=567 |pages=489–509 |bibcode=2018JHyd..567..489G |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.012 |issn=0022-1694 |s2cid=135053362}}</ref> Ecological disasters, such as a 1998 [[coral bleaching]] event that killed off more than 70% of corals in the reef ecosystems off [[Lakshadweep]] and the [[Andaman Islands|Andamans]] and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming, are also projected to become increasingly common.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Normile |first=D. |date=2000-05-12 |title=GLOBAL WARMING:Some Coral Bouncing Back From El Niño |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.288.5468.941a |journal=Science |volume=288 |issue=5468 |pages=941a–942 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5468.941a |pmid=10841705 |s2cid=128503395}}</ref><ref>Aggarwal, D., Lal, M. Vulnerability of the Indian Coastline to Sea Level Rise (SURVAS Flood Hazard Research Centre)</ref>

====Water bodies====
{{Main|Rivers of India}}
[[File:Teestavalley.jpg|thumb|[[National highways of India|National Highway]] [[List of National Highways in India|31A]] winds along the banks of the [[Teesta River]] near [[Kalimpong]] ([[West Bengal]]), in the [[Darjeeling]] Himalayan hill region.]]
India has around 14,500&nbsp;km of inland navigable waterways.<ref name="IWAI">{{cite web |title=Introduction to Inland Water Transport |url=http://iwai.gov.in/introduction.htm |publisher=Government of India |access-date=19 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709231653/http://iwai.gov.in/introduction.htm |archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding {{convert|2528000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama3" /> All major rivers of India [[Source (river or stream)|originate]] from one of the three main [[water divide|watersheds]]:<ref name="manorama3" />
* The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
* Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
* Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] are the [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]].<ref name="manorama4" />

The [[Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]]-[[Meghna River|Meghana]] system has the largest catchment area of about {{convert|1600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Elhance1999">{{cite book|last=Elhance|first=Arun P.|title=Hydropolitics in the Third World: conflict and cooperation in international river basins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uB0ZSZjTECsC&pg=PA156|year=1999|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|isbn=978-1-878379-91-7|pages=156–158}}</ref> The [[Ganges Basin]] alone has a catchment of about {{convert|1100000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama3" /> The Ganges originates from the [[Gangotri Glacier]] in Uttarakhand.<ref name="manorama4" /> It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.<ref name="manorama3" /> (The [[Yamuna]] and [[Gomti]] rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains.<ref name="manorama3" /> The Brahmaputra originates in [[Tibet]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], where it is known as the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River]]) (or "Tsangpo"). It enters India in the far-eastern state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], then flows west through [[Assam]]. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the [[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna River]].<ref name="manorama3" /><ref name="britannica">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77154/Brahmaputra-River/48053/Physical-features Brahmaputra River] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125101600/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77154/Brahmaputra-River/48053/Physical-features |date=25 January 2012 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>

The [[Chambal River|Chambal]], another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and [[Tapti River|Tapi]], which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.{{clarify|date=May 2011|reason=10% of the what total outflow? paragraph also a bit confusing—easy to read it as saying the Narmada and Tapi are tributaries of the Chambal.}}

[[File:Papikondalu view 04.jpg|thumb|The [[Godavari River]] at [[Papi Hills]]]]
(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through [[Godavari River]], [[Krishna River]] and [[Kaveri River]], all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow).<ref name="manorama4">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India – The Country)''| pages =518}}</ref>

The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.

Major gulfs include the [[Gulf of Cambay]], [[Gulf of Kutch]], and the [[Gulf of Mannar]]. Straits include the [[Palk Strait]], which separates India from Sri Lanka; the [[Ten Degree Channel]], which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include the [[Kanyakumari]] (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; [[Indira Point]], the southernmost point in India (on [[Great Nicobar]] Island); [[Rama's Bridge]], and [[Point Calimere]]. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include the [[Laccadive Sea]] and the [[Andaman Sea]]. There are four [[coral reef]]s in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch.<ref name="manorama5" /> Important lakes include [[Sambhar Lake]], the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, [[Vembanad Lake]] in Kerala, [[Kolleru Lake]] in Andhra Pradesh, [[Loktak Lake]] in [[Manipur]], [[Dal Lake]] in Kashmir, [[Chilka Lake]] (lagoon lake) in Odisha, and [[Sasthamkotta Lake]] in Kerala.

==== Wetlands ====
[[Image:Sunderbans map.png|thumb|A map of the Indian [[Sunderbans]] in [[West Bengal]]]]
[[File:Pichavaram Mangrove.jpg|thumb|[[Pichavaram]] Mangroves, [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
India's [[wetland]] ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks.<ref name="yearbook1">[[#Yearbook|India Yearbook]], p. 306</ref> Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of {{convert|4461|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}},<ref name="yearbook2">[[#Yearbook|India Yearbook]], p. 309</ref> which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the [[Sundarbans]] delta, the [[Gulf of Kutch]] and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.<ref name="manorama5">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India – Environment)''|pages =580}}</ref>

The [[Sundarbans]] delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the [[Sundarbans National Park]] (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the [[Bengal tiger]]. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

The [[Rann of Kutch]] is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering [[Sindh]] province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of {{convert|27900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="NG">{{NatGeo ecoregion|name=Rann of Kutch|id=im0901|access-date=19 November 2008}}</ref> The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.

==== Arable land ====
India's arable land area of 1,597,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (394.6 million acres) is the second largest in the world, after the United States. Its gross irrigated crop area of 826,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (215.6 million acres) is the largest in the world, followed by US and China.<ref>{{cite web |title=India outranks US, China with world's highest net cropland area |url=http://www.indiawaterreview.in/Story/Features/india-outranks-us-china-with-worlds-highest-net-cropland-area/2096/2#.W_A_iOgzZPY |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118011104/http://www.indiawaterreview.in/Story/Features/india-outranks-us-china-with-worlds-highest-net-cropland-area/2096/2#.W_A_iOgzZPY |archive-date=18 November 2018 |access-date=17 November 2018}}</ref> Of the 160 million hectares of cultivated land in India, about 39 million hectare can be irrigated by groundwater wells and an additional 22 million hectares by irrigation canals.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/ind/IND-gmia.pdf Global map of irrigated areas: India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023195405/http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/ind/IND-gmia.pdf |date=23 October 2020 }} FAO-United Nations and Bonn University, Germany (2013)</ref> In 2010, only about 35% of agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated.<ref name="wbirrig">[http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.IRIG.AG.ZS/countries Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land)] The World Bank (2013)</ref> About 2/3rd cultivated land in India is dependent on [[Monsoon of South Asia|monsoons]].<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/special-report/how-to-solve-the-problems-of-indias-rain-dependent-agricultural-land/articleshow/8845170.cms Economic Times: ''How to solve the problems of India's rain-dependent agricultural land'']</ref>

===Economic resources ===

==== Minerals and ores ====
[[Image:Coal mine in Dhanbad, India.jpg|thumb|Coal mine in [[Jharkhand]].]]
India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.<ref name="MINES">{{cite web |title=India's Contribution to the World's Mineral Production |url=http://mines.nic.in/imsene.html#INDIA’S%20CONTRIBUTION%20TO%20THE%20WORLD’S%20MINERAL%20PRODUCTION |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216005817/http://mines.nic.in/imsene.html#INDIA’S%20CONTRIBUTION%20TO%20THE%20WORLD’S%20MINERAL%20PRODUCTION |archive-date=16 December 2008 |access-date=20 November 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Mines, Government of India}}</ref> India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barite and chromite.<ref name="MINES" /> The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of [[iron ore]].<ref name="EE2" /><ref name="MINES" /> It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh-largest of [[manganese ore]] and the eighth-largest of aluminium.<ref name="MINES" /> India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=India |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india |archive-date=18 March 2021 |access-date=16 June 2007 |work=CIA Factbook}}</ref> India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viable [[thorium]], which is mined along shores of Kerala.<ref name="WNA">{{cite web |title=Information and Issue Briefs – Thorium |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107083059/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htm |archive-date=7 November 2006 |access-date=1 June 2006 |publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]]}}</ref> Gold had been mined in the now-defunct [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in Karnataka.<ref name="Rediff">{{cite web |title=Death of the Kolar Gold Fields |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2000/may/08gita.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210131307/http://www.rediff.com/news/2000/may/08gita.htm |archive-date=10 December 2008 |access-date=21 November 2008 |work=Rediff.com}}</ref>

==== Renewable water ====
India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> a year.<ref name="EE">{{cite web|title=Water profile of India|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_India#Water_Resources|publisher=[[Encyclopedia of Earth]]|access-date=20 November 2008|archive-date=8 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108101729/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_India#Water_Resources|url-status=live}}</ref> Its annual supply of usable and replenishable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres.<ref name="OT">{{cite journal|title=India's Underground Water Resources|author=Jain, J.K. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|pages=507–22|date=May 1977|volume=278|issue=962|doi=10.1098/rstb.1977.0058|last2=Farmer|first2=B. H.|last3=Rush|first3=H.|last4=West|first4=H. W.|last5=Allan|first5=J. A.|last6=Dasgupta|first6=B.|last7=Boon|first7=W. H.|bibcode=1977RSPTB.278..507J |doi-access=free}}</ref> Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised.<ref name="OT" /> About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways.<ref name="IWAI" /> Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soils have a wide diffusion of iron content.<ref name="krishi" />

====Energy====
Most of India's estimated {{convert|5.4|Goilbbl|m3}} in oil reserves are located in the [[Mumbai High Field|Mumbai High]], [[Upper Assam division|upper Assam]], [[Cambay Shale Formation|Cambay]], the [[Krishna Godavari Basin|Krishna-Godavari]] and [[Kaveri|Cauvery]] basins.<ref name="EE2">{{cite web|title=Energy profile of India|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_India|publisher=Encyclopedia of Earth|access-date=20 November 2008|archive-date=8 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208163826/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_India|url-status=live}}</ref> India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of [[natural gas]] in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.<ref name="EE2" /> [[Uranium]] is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy [[thermal spring]]s for producing [[geothermal energy]] in seven areas—the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic [[Barren Island, Andaman Islands|Barren Island]].)<ref name="IIT">{{cite web|title=Geothermal Energy Resources of India |url=http://www.geos.iitb.ac.in/geothermalindia/pubs/IBC/IBCTALKweb.htm |author=Chandrasekharam, D. |publisher=[[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]] |access-date=2 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217033017/http://www.geos.iitb.ac.in/geothermalindia/pubs/IBC/IBCTALKweb.htm |archive-date=17 December 2008}}</ref>