Editing Genetically modified organism (section)

=== Fish ===
{{Main|Genetically modified fish}}

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 | footer    = When exposed to 13&nbsp;°C water the zebrafish modified to express a [[carp]] [[creatine kinase]] ('''right''') maintained swimming behavior, while wild type zebrafish ('''left''') could not.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang Q, Tan X, Jiao S, You F, Zhang PJ | title = Analyzing cold tolerance mechanism in transgenic zebrafish (Danio rerio) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 7 | pages = e102492 | date = 24 July 2014 | pmid = 25058652 | pmc = 4109919 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0102492 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...9j2492W | doi-access = free }}</ref> | image1    = Analyzing-Cold-Tolerance-Mechanism-in-Transgenic-Zebrafish-(Danio-rerio)-pone.0102492.s009.ogv | width1    = 180
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Genetically modified fish are used for scientific research, as pets and as a food source. [[Aquaculture]] is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090907162320.htm|title=Half of Fish Consumed Globally Is Now Raised on Farms, Study Finds|website=ScienceDaily|access-date=21 December 2018}}</ref> Through genetic engineering it is possible to increase growth rates, reduce food intake, remove allergenic properties, increase cold tolerance and provide disease resistance. Fish can also be used to detect aquatic pollution or function as bioreactors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tonelli FM, Lacerda SM, Tonelli FC, Costa GM, de França LR, Resende RR | title = Progress and biotechnological prospects in fish transgenesis | journal = Biotechnology Advances | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 832–844 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 28602961 | doi = 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2017.06.002 }}</ref>

Several groups have been developing [[zebrafish]] to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants. The fish will then glow and can be used as environmental sensors.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Nebert DW, Stuart GW, Solis WA, Carvan MJ|date=January 2002|title=Use of reporter genes and vertebrate DNA motifs in transgenic zebrafish as sentinels for assessing aquatic pollution|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=110|issue=1|pages=A15|doi=10.1289/ehp.110-1240712|pmc=1240712|pmid=11813700}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Mattingly CJ, McLachlan JA, Toscano WA|date=August 2001|title=Green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a marker of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) function in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio)|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=109|issue=8|pages=845–849|doi=10.1289/ehp.01109845|pmc=1240414|pmid=11564622|bibcode=2001EnvHP.109..845M }}</ref> The [[GloFish]] is a brand of genetically modified fluorescent [[zebrafish]] with bright red, green, and orange fluorescent color. It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when in 2003 it was introduced for sale in the USA.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hallerman E|date=June 2004|title=Glofish, the first GM animal commercialized: profits amid controversy.|url=http://www.isb.vt.edu/articles/jun0405.htm|journal=ISB News Report}}</ref>

GM fish are widely used in basic research in genetics and development. Two species of fish, zebrafish and [[Oryzias latipes|medaka]], are most commonly modified because they have optically clear [[Chorion (egg)|chorions]] (membranes in the egg), rapidly develop, and the one-cell embryo is easy to see and microinject with transgenic DNA.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Hackett PB, Ekker SE, Essner JJ | date = 2004 | chapter = Chapter 16: Applications of transposable elements in fish for transgenesis and functional genomics | title = Fish Development and Genetics | veditors = Gong Z, Korzh V | publisher = World Scientific, Inc. | pages = 532–80 }}</ref> Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, [[Regeneration (biology)|regeneration]], genetics, behavior, disease mechanisms and toxicity testing.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Meyers JR |date=2018|title=Zebrafish: Development of a Vertebrate Model Organism |journal=Current Protocols in Essential Laboratory Techniques |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=e19|doi=10.1002/cpet.19 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Their transparency allows researchers to observe developmental stages, intestinal functions and tumour growth.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lu JW, Ho YJ, Ciou SC, Gong Z | title = Innovative Disease Model: Zebrafish as an In Vivo Platform for Intestinal Disorder and Tumors | journal = Biomedicines | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | page = 58 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28961226 | pmc = 5744082 | doi = 10.3390/biomedicines5040058 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Barriuso J, Nagaraju R, Hurlstone A | title = Zebrafish: a new companion for translational research in oncology | journal = Clinical Cancer Research | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 969–75 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25573382 | pmc = 5034890 | doi = 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-2921 }}</ref> The generation of transgenic protocols (whole organism, cell or tissue specific, tagged with reporter genes) has increased the level of information gained by studying these fish.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Burket CT, Montgomery JE, Thummel R, Kassen SC, LaFave MC, Langenau DM, Zon LI, Hyde DR | display-authors = 6 | title = Generation and characterization of transgenic zebrafish lines using different ubiquitous promoters | journal = Transgenic Research | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 265–79 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 17968670 | pmc = 3660017 | doi = 10.1007/s11248-007-9152-5 }}</ref>

GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of [[growth hormone]] for use in the [[aquaculture]] industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks. This has resulted in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including [[salmon]],<ref name="nature salmon">{{cite journal | vauthors = Du SJ, Gong Z, Fletcher GL, Shears MA, King MJ, Idler DR, Hew CL | year = 1992 | title = Growth Enhancement in Transgenic Atlantic Salmon by the Use of an 'All Fish' Chimeric Growth Hormone Gene Construct | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 10 | issue = 2| pages = 176–181 | doi=10.1038/nbt0292-176 | pmid = 1368229| s2cid = 27048646 }}</ref> [[trout]]<ref name="nature trout">{{cite journal | vauthors = Devlin RH, Biagi CA, Yesaki TY, Smailus DE, Byatt JC | title = Growth of domesticated transgenic fish | journal = Nature | volume = 409 | issue = 6822 | pages = 781–782 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11236982 | doi = 10.1038/35057314 | bibcode = 2001Natur.409..781D | s2cid = 5293883 }}</ref> and [[tilapia]].<ref name="tilapia">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rahman MA | display-authors = et al | year = 2001 | title = Growth and nutritional trials on transgenic Nile tilapia containing an exogenous fish growth hormone gene | journal = Journal of Fish Biology | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 62–78 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb02338.x| bibcode = 2001JFBio..59...62R }}</ref> [[AquaBounty Technologies]], a biotechnology company, have produced a salmon (called [[AquAdvantage salmon]]) that can mature in half the time as wild salmon.<ref name="NYT2012">{{cite news| vauthors = Pollack A |title=Engineered Fish Moves a Step Closer to Approval|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/22/business/gene-altered-fish-moves-closer-to-federal-approval.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/22/business/gene-altered-fish-moves-closer-to-federal-approval.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|newspaper=The New York Times|date=21 December 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It obtained regulatory approval in 2015, the first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm472487.htm|title=FDA Has Determined That the AquAdvantage Salmon is as Safe to Eat as Non-GE Salmon|website=U.S. Food & Drug Administration|date=19 November 2015|access-date=9 February 2018}}</ref> As of August 2017, GMO salmon is being sold in Canada.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/first-genetically-engineered-salmon-sold-in-canada/|title=First Genetically Engineered Salmon Sold in Canada| vauthors = Waltz E |work=Scientific American|access-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> Sales in the US started in May 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/whole-foods-market-inc-lifestyle-health-coronavirus-pandemic-technology-a4ef4f24801f62ac65918e4560d7eb8a|title=Genetically modified salmon head to US dinner plates |last=Smith |first=Casey |date=21 May 2021 |website=AP News |access-date=6 August 2021}}</ref>