Editing Education reform (section)

== Public school reform in the United States ==
In the United States, [[Education in the United States|public education]] is characterized as "any federally funded primary or secondary school, administered to some extent by the government, and charged with educating all citizens.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Education Reform and School Change|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756810/obo-9780199756810-0014.xml|access-date=2021-04-11|website=obo|language=en}}</ref> Although there is typically a cost to attend some public higher education institutions, they are still considered part of public education.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=History of Public Schools - Education Bug|url=http://www.educationbug.org/a/history-of-public-schools.html|access-date=2021-04-10|website=www.educationbug.org}}</ref>"

=== Colonial America ===
In what would become the United States, the first public school was established in Boston, Massachusetts, on April 23, 1635. Puritan schoolmaster Philemon Pormont led instruction at the [[Boston Latin School]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=BLS History|url=https://bls.org/apps/pages/index.jsp?uREC_ID=206116&type=d|access-date=2021-04-18|website=bls.org|language=en}}</ref> During this time, post-secondary education was a commonly utilized tool to distinguish one's social class and social status. Access to education was the "privilege of white, upper-class, Christian male children" in preparation for university education in ministry.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Educational Reforms {{!}} Boundless US History|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/educational-reforms/|access-date=2021-04-18|website=courses.lumenlearning.com}}</ref>

In colonial America, to maintain Puritan religious traditions, formal and informal education instruction focused on teaching literacy.<ref>{{Cite web|title=AMERICAN EDUCATION|url=https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/ae1.html|access-date=2021-04-11|website=oregonstate.edu}}</ref> All colonists needed to understand the written language on some fundamental level in order to read the Bible and the colony's written secular laws. Religious leaders recognized that each person should be "educated enough to meet the individual needs of their station in life and social harmony.<ref name="encyclopedia.com">{{Cite web|title=The Education Reform Movement {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/education-reform-movement|access-date=2021-03-29|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>" The first [[Massachusetts Education Law of 1647|compulsory education laws]] were passed in Massachusetts between 1642 and 1648 when religious leaders noticed not all parents were providing their children with ''proper'' education.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Matzat|first=Amy|date=2021-04-11|title=MASSACHUSETTS EDUCATION LAWS OF 1642 AND 1647|url=https://www3.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/masslaws.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www3.nd.edu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000229092227/http://www.nd.edu:80/~rbarger/www7/masslaws.html |archive-date=2000-02-29 }}</ref> These laws stated that all towns with 50 or more families were obligated to hire a schoolmaster to teach children reading, writing, and basic arithmetic.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Massachusetts School Law (April 14, 1642) {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/massachusetts-school-law-april-14-1642|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><blockquote>"In 1642 the General Court passed a law that required heads of households to teach all their dependents — apprentices and servants as well as their own children — to read English or face a fine. Parents could provide the instruction themselves or hire someone else to do it. Selectmen were to keep 'a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors,' young people whose education was neglected could be removed from their parents or masters.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Massachusetts.|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009710032|title=The charters and general laws of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts Bay|date=1814|publisher=T.B. Wait|series=Laws, etc. (Charters and general laws)|location=Boston}}</ref>"</blockquote>The 1647 law eventually led to establishing publicly funded district schools in all Massachusetts towns, although, despite the threat of fines, compliance and quality of public schools were less than satisfactory.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Edmonston|first=Jack|title=Massachusetts: The nation's leader in public education|url=https://www.capecodtimes.com/opinion/20170605/massachusetts-nations-leader-in-public-education|access-date=2021-04-18|website=capecodtimes.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418014639/https://www.capecodtimes.com/opinion/20170605/massachusetts-nations-leader-in-public-education|url-status=dead}}</ref><blockquote>"Many towns were 'shamefully neglectful' of children's education. In 1718 '...by sad experience, it is found that many towns that not only are obliged by law, but are very able to support a grammar school, yet choose rather to incur and pay the fine or penalty than maintain a grammar school."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Science.|first=Columbia University (New York, N.Y.). Faculty of Political|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/637671970|title=Studies in history, economics and public law|publisher=Columbia University|pages=20–21|oclc=637671970}}</ref></blockquote>When John Adams drafted the [[Constitution of Massachusetts|Massachusetts Constitution in 1780]], he included provisions for a comprehensive education law that guaranteed public education to "all" citizens. However, access to formal education in secondary schools and colleges was reserved for free, white males. During the 17th and 18th centuries, females received little or no formal education except for home learning or attending [[Dame school|Dame Schools]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Massachusetts Passes First Education Law|url=https://www.massmoments.org/moment-details/massachusetts-passes-first-education-law.html|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www.massmoments.org|date=14 April 2006 |language=en}}</ref>  Likewise, many educational institutions maintained a policy of refusing to admit Black applicants. The [[Code of Virginia|Virginia Code of 1819]] outlawed teaching enslaved people to read or write.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=1101292 |title=History of Virginia Codification |last1=Ross |first1=William E. |journal=The Virginia Law Register |year=1905 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=79–101 |doi=10.2307/1101292 }}</ref>

=== Post-revolution ===
Soon after the [[American Revolution]], early leaders, like [[Thomas Jefferson and education|Thomas Jefferson]] and [[John Adams]], proposed the creation of a more "formal and unified system of publicly funded schools" to satiate the need to "build and maintain commerce, agriculture and shipping interests".<ref>{{Cite web|title=AMERICAN EDUCATION|url=https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/ae2.html|access-date=2021-04-18|website=oregonstate.edu}}</ref> Their concept of free public education was not well received and did not begin to take hold on until the 1830s. However, in 1790, evolving socio-cultural ideals in the [[Pennsylvania|Commonwealth of Pennsylvania]] led to the first significant and systematic reform in education legislation that mandated economic conditions would not inhibit a child's access to education:<blockquote>"[https://www.paconstitution.org/texts-of-the-constitution/1790-2/ Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania – 1790 ''ARTICLE VII Section I. The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, provide, by law, for the establishment of schools throughout the state, in such manner that the poor may be taught gratis.'']"</blockquote>

=== Reconstruction and the American Industrial Revolution ===
During [[Reconstruction era|Reconstruction]], from 1865 to 1877''',''' African Americans worked to encourage public education in the South. With the [[Plessy v. Ferguson|U.S. Supreme Court decision]] in [[Plessy v. Ferguson]], which held that "segregated public facilities were constitutional so long as the black and white facilities were equal to each other", this meant that African American children were legally allowed to attend public schools, although these schools were still [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregated]] based on race. However, by the mid-twentieth century, [[Civil rights movement|civil rights]] groups would challenge racial segregation.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=The Supreme Court . Expanding Civil Rights . Landmark Cases . Brown v. Board of Education (1954) {{!}} PBS|url=https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/landmark_brown.html|access-date=2021-04-11|website=www.thirteen.org}}</ref>

During the second half of the nineteenth century (1870 and 1914), [[Industrial Revolution in the United States|America's Industrial Revolution]] refocused the nation's attention on the need for a universally accessible public school system. Inventions, innovations, and improved production methods were critical to the continued growth of American manufacturing.<ref name="encyclopedia.com"/> To compete in the [[World economy|global economy]], an overwhelming demand for literate workers that possessed practical training emerged. Citizens argued, "educating children of the poor and middle classes would prepare them to obtain good jobs, thereby strengthen the nation's economic position.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Shapiro|first1=Sarah|last2=Brown|first2=Catherine|title=The State of Civics Education|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education-k-12/reports/2018/02/21/446857/state-civics-education/|access-date=2021-04-10|website=Center for American Progress|date=21 February 2018 |language=en-US}}</ref>" Institutions became an essential tool in yielding ideal factory workers with sought-after attitudes and desired traits such as dependability, obedience, and punctuality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=Sascha O|last2=Hornung|first2=Erik|last3=Woessmann|first3=Ludger|date=2011-07-01|title=Education and Catch-up in the Industrial Revolution|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/mac.3.3.92|journal=American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics|volume=3|issue=3|pages=92–126|doi=10.1257/mac.3.3.92|s2cid=1637350|issn=1945-7707}}</ref> [[Vocational school|Vocationally oriented schools]] offered practical subjects like shop classes for students who were not planning to attend college for financial or other reasons. Not until the latter part of the 19th century did public elementary schools become available throughout the country. Although, it would be longer for children of color, girls, and children with special needs to attain access free public education.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Dzuback|first1=Mary Ann|last2=Katznelson|first2=Ira|last3=Weir|first3=Margaret|date=1987|title=Schooling for All: Class, Race, and the Decline of the Democratic Ideal.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2151511|journal=Political Science Quarterly|volume=102|issue=1|pages=146|doi=10.2307/2151511|jstor=2151511|issn=0032-3195}}</ref>

===Mid 20th and early 21st century (United states)===
{{see also|History of education in the United States}}

==== Civil rights reform ====
Systemic bias remained a formidable barrier. From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in U.S. education stemmed from the [[civil rights movement]] and related trends; examples include [[school integration in the United States|ending racial segregation]], and [[Desegregation busing in the United States|busing for the purpose of desegregation]], [[affirmative action]], and banning of [[school prayer]].<ref>Tyack and Cuban, p. 29</ref>

In the early 1950s, most U.S. public schools operated under a legally sanctioned racial segregation system. Civil Rights reform movements sought to address the biases that ensure unequal distribution of academic resources such as school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, and learning materials to those socially excluded communities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Grant|first=Marquis|title=What Is Educational Reform? - Issues & Timeline|url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-educational-reform-issues-timeline-quiz.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-11|website=study.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029150449/https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-educational-reform-issues-timeline-quiz.html |archive-date=2020-10-29 }}</ref>  In the early 1950s, the [[NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund|NAACP]] lawyers brought class-action lawsuits on behalf of black schoolchildren and their families in Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware, petitioning court orders to compel school districts to let black students attend white public schools.<ref name=":7"/> Finally, in 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected that framework with [[Brown v. Board of Education]] and declared state-sponsored segregation of public schools unconstitutional.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Civil Rights in Education: Law and History|url=https://www.findlaw.com/civilrights/civil-rights-overview/civil-rights-in-education-law-and-history.html|access-date=2021-03-28|website=Findlaw|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 1964, [[Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964|Title VI of the Civil Rights Act]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 88-352 |date=1964 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-78/pdf/STATUTE-78-Pg241.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> "prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, and national origin in programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-05-25|title=Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964|url=https://www.justice.gov/crt/fcs/titlevi|access-date=2021-04-19|website=www.justice.gov|language=en}}</ref>" Educational institutions could now utilize public funds to implement in-service training programs to assist teachers and administrators in establishing desegregation plans.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rights (OCR)|first=Office for Civil|date=2009-01-15|title=Civil Rights Requirements Title VI of the Civil Rights Act|url=https://www.hhs.gov/civil-rights/for-individuals/special-topics/needy-families/civil-rights-requirements/index.html|access-date=2021-04-19|website=HHS.gov|language=en}}</ref>

In 1965, the [[Higher Education Act of 1965|Higher Education Act]] (HEA)<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 89–329 |date=1965 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-79/pdf/STATUTE-79-Pg1219.pdf#page=37 |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> authorizes federal aid for postsecondary students.

[[Elementary and Secondary Education Act|The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965]] (ESEA) represents the federal government's commitment to providing equal access to quality education; including those children from low-income families, limited English proficiency, and other minority groups.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Jeffrey, Julie Roy|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1135189489|title=Education for children of the poor : a study of the origins and implementation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965|date=1978|publisher=Ohio State University Press|isbn=0-8142-0277-2|oclc=1135189489}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-02-03|title=Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965|url=https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/elementary-and-secondary-education-act-of-1965/|access-date=2021-04-18|website=Social Welfare History Project|language=en-US}}</ref> This legislation had positive retroactive implications for [[Historically black colleges and universities|Historically Black Colleges and Universities]], more commonly known as HBCUs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=What is an HBCU? {{!}} White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities|url=https://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/one-hundred-and-five-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/|access-date=2021-04-18|language=en-US}}</ref><blockquote>"[[Higher Education Act of 1965|The Higher Education Act of 1965]], as amended, defines an HBCU as: "…any historically black college or university that was established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation."<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>Known as the [[Bilingual Education Act]], [[Elementary and Secondary Education Act|Title VII]] of ESEA,<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 90-247 |date=1968 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-81/pdf/STATUTE-81-Pg783.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> offered federal aid to school districts to provide bilingual instruction for students with limited English speaking ability.<ref>{{Cite web|title=IA2 Federal Legislation - Title VII|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~hakuta/www/LAU/IAPolicy/IA2LegFedTiVII.htm#:~:text=Title%20VII%20of%20the%20Elementary%20and%20Secondary%20Education%20Act%20(ESEA,by%20non-English%20speaking%20students.&text=In%20addition%20to%20providing%20funds,professional%20development%20and%20research%20activities.|access-date=2021-04-18|website=web.stanford.edu}}</ref>

The [[Education Amendments of 1972]] (Public Law 92-318, 86 Stat. 327) establishes the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Education Division in the U.S. Department of Health]], Education, and Welfare and the [[Institute of Education Sciences|National Institute of Education]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-08-15|title=Records of the National Institute of Education [NIE]|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/419.html|access-date=2021-04-19|website=National Archives|language=en}}</ref> Title IX of the [[Education Amendments of 1972]] states, "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-08-06|title=Title Ix Of The Education Amendments Of 1972|url=https://www.justice.gov/crt/title-ix-education-amendments-1972|access-date=2021-04-19|website=www.justice.gov|language=en}}</ref>"

[[Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 93-380 |date=1974 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/69 |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> - Civil Rights Amendments to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965:<blockquote>"Title I: [[Bilingual Education Act]] - Authorizes appropriations for carrying out the provisions of this Act. Establishes, in the [[U.S. Office of Education|Office of Education]], an Office of Bilingual Education through which the Commissioner of Education shall carry out his functions relating to bilingual education. Authorizes appropriations for school nutrition and health services, correction education services, and ethnic heritage studies centers.

Title II: Equal Educational Opportunities and the Transportation of Students: [[Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974|Equal Educational Opportunities Act]] - Provides that no state shall deny equal educational opportunity to an individual on account of his or her race, color, sex, or national origin by means of specified practices...

Title IV: Consolidation of Certain Education Programs: Authorizes appropriations for use in various education programs including libraries and learning resources, education for use of the metric system of measurement, gifted and talented children programs, community schools, career education, consumers' education, women's equity in education programs, and arts in education programs.

Community Schools Act - Authorizes the Commissioner to make grants to local educational agencies to assist in planning, establishing, expanding, and operating community education programs

[[Women's Educational Equity Act]] - Establishes the Advisory Council on Women's Educational Programs and sets forth the composition of such Council. Authorizes the Commissioner of Education to make grants to, and enter into contracts with, public agencies, private nonprofit organizations, and individuals for activities designed to provide [[educational equity]] for women in the United States.

Title V: Education Administration: [[Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act]] (FERPA)- Provides that no funds shall be made available under the General Education Provisions Act to any State or local educational agency or educational institution which denies or prevents the parents of students to inspect and review all records and files regarding their children.

Title VII: National Reading Improvement Program: Authorizes the Commissioner to contract with State or local educational agencies for the carrying out by such agencies, in schools having large numbers of children with reading deficiencies, of demonstration projects involving the use of innovative methods, systems, materials, or programs which show promise of overcoming such reading deficiencies.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Perkins|first=Carl Dewey|date=1974-08-21|title=H.R.69 - 93rd Congress (1973-1974): Elementary and Secondary Education Amendments|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/69|access-date=2021-04-19|website=www.congress.gov}}</ref>"</blockquote>In 1975, [[Education for All Handicapped Children Act|The Education for All Handicapped Children Act]] ([[Education for All Handicapped Children Act|Public Law 94-142]]) ensured that all handicapped children (age 3-21) receive a "free, appropriate public education" designed to meet their special needs.<ref>{{Citation|last=Dunn|first=Debra|title=Public Law 94-142|date=2013|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_393|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders|pages=2468–2471|editor-last=Volkmar|editor-first=Fred R.|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_393|isbn=978-1-4419-1698-3|s2cid=243505382 |access-date=2021-04-18}}</ref>

==== 1980–1989: A Nation at Risk ====

During the 1980s, some of the momentum of education reform moved from the left to the right, with the release of ''[[A Nation at Risk]]'', [[Ronald Reagan]]'s efforts to reduce or eliminate the [[United States Department of Education]]. <blockquote> "[T]he federal government and virtually all state governments, teacher training institutions, teachers' unions, major foundations, and the mass media have all pushed strenuously for higher standards, greater accountability, more "time on task," and more impressive academic results".<ref name="Miller2002">{{cite book|author=Ron Miller|title=Free Schools, Free People: Education and Democracy After the Nineteen Sixties|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFdO7nX5NOsC|access-date=5 June 2013|year=2002|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8824-9|page=110}}</ref></blockquote>

Per the shift in educational motivation, families sought institutional alternatives, including "[[Charter schools in the United States|charter schools]], [[Progressive education|progressive schools]], [[Montessori education|Montessori schools]], [[Waldorf education|Waldorf schools]], [[Afrocentric education|Afrocentric schools]], religious schools - or [[Homeschooling|home school instruction]] in their communities."<ref name="Miller2002"/>

In 1984 President Reagan enacted the [[Education for Economic Security Act]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 98-377 |date=1984 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.congress.gov/98/statute/STATUTE-98/STATUTE-98-Pg1267.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref>

In 1989, the [https://www.congress.gov/bill/101st-congress/house-bill/3299 Child Development and Education Act of 1989]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 101-239 |date=1989 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.congress.gov/101/statute/STATUTE-103/STATUTE-103-Pg2106.pdf}}</ref> authorized funds for [[Head Start (program)|Head Start Programs]] to include child care services.

In the latter half of the decade, [[E. D. Hirsch]] put forth an influential attack on one or more versions of progressive education. Advocating an emphasis on "cultural literacy"—the facts, phrases, and texts.

See also [[Uncommon Schools]].

====1990-1999: standards-based education model====
{{see also|Standards-based education reform}}

In 1994, the [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts|land grant system]] was expanded via the Elementary and Secondary Education Act to include tribal colleges.<ref>{{Cite web|title=1994 Tribal Land-Grant Colleges and Universities Program|url=https://www.usda.gov/partnerships/1994-program|access-date=2021-04-12|website=www.usda.gov|language=en}}</ref>

Most states and districts in the 1990s adopted [[outcome-based education]] (OBE) in some form or another. A state would create a committee to adopt standards, and choose a quantitative instrument to assess whether the students knew the required content or could perform the required tasks.

In 1992 The National Commission on Time and Learning, Extension<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 102-359 |date=1992 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-106/pdf/STATUTE-106-Pg962.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> revise funding for civic education programs and those educationally disadvantaged children.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Education Policy > Timeline|url=http://www.avoiceonline.org/edpol/timeline.html|access-date=2021-04-27|website=www.avoiceonline.org}}</ref>"

In 1994 the [[Improving America's Schools Act of 1994|Improving America's Schools Act]] (IASA)<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 103-382 |date=1994 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.congress.gov/103/statute/STATUTE-108/STATUTE-108-Pg3518.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> reauthorized the [[Elementary and Secondary Education Act|Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965]]; amended as The Eisenhower Professional Development Program; IASA designated Title I funds for low income and otherwise marginalized groups; i.e., females, minorities, individuals with disabilities, individuals with limited English proficiency (LEP).<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|title=ED-Chapter 3|url=https://govinfo.library.unt.edu/npr/library/reports/ED3.html|access-date=2021-04-27|website=govinfo.library.unt.edu}}</ref> By tethering federal funding distributions to student achievement, IASA meant use high stakes testing and curriculum standards to hold schools accountable for their results at the same level as other students. The Act significantly increased impact aid for the establishment of the Charter School Program, drug awareness campaigns, [[Bilingual Education Act|bilingual education]], and technology.<ref name=":02" />

In 1998 The Charter School Expansion Act <ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 105-278 |date=1998 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://uscode.house.gov/statutes/pl/105/278.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> amended the Charter School Program, enacted in 1994.

==== 2000–2015: No Child Left Behind ====
[https://www.congress.gov/bill/106th-congress/house-bill/4577 Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2001]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 106–554 |date=2000 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-106publ554/pdf/PLAW-106publ554.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> appropriated funding to repair educational institution's buildings as well as repair and renovate charter school facilities, reauthorized the [[Even Start Program|Even Start program]], and enacted the [[Children's Internet Protection Act]].

The standards-based [[Goals 2000|National Education Goals 2000]], set by the U.S. Congress in the 1990s, were based on the principles of [[outcomes-based education]]. In 2002, the standards-based reform movement culminated as the [[No Child Left Behind Act|No Child left Behind Act of 2001]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 107–110 |date=2001 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED556108.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> where achievement standard were set by each individual state. This federal policy was active until 2015 in the United States .

An article released by CBNC.com said a principal Senate Committee will take into account legislation that reauthorizes and modernizes the Carl D. Perkins Act. President George Bush approved this statute in 2006 on August 12, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-03-16|title=Reauthorization of Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act|url=https://www2.ed.gov/policy/sectech/leg/perkins/index.html|access-date=2018-07-10|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en}}</ref> This new bill will emphasize the importance of federal funding for various Career and Technical (CTE) programs that will better provide learners with in-demand skills. Pell Grants are specific amount of money is given by the government every school year for disadvantaged students who need to pay tuition fees in college.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pay for College - What Is a Pell Grant?|url=https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/pay-for-college/grants-and-scholarships/what-is-a-pell-grant|access-date=2018-07-10|website=bigfuture.collegeboard.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Knott |first=Katherine |title=House Education Committee Ready to Tackle Short-Term Pell |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/government/2023/02/08/house-education-committee-hears-about-need-short-term-pell |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=Inside Higher Ed |language=en}}</ref>

At present, there are many initiatives aimed at dealing with these concerns like innovative cooperation between federal and state governments, educators, and the business sector. One of these efforts is the Pathways to Technology Early College High School (P-TECH).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pathways in Technology Early College High School / Homepage|url=https://www.ptechnyc.org/|access-date=2018-07-10|website=www.ptechnyc.org|language=en}}</ref> This six-year program was launched in cooperation with IBM, educators from three cities in New York, Chicago, and Connecticut, and over 400 businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-29|title=P-TECH scholars head to 'new collar' future|url=https://www.ibm.com/thought-leadership/ptech/index.html|access-date=2018-07-10|website=P-TECH scholars head to 'new collar' future|language=en-US}}</ref> The program offers students in high school and associate programs focusing on the [[STEM]]  curriculum.<ref>{{Cite news|title=What is STEM Education?|work=Live Science|url=https://www.livescience.com/43296-what-is-stem-education.html|access-date=2018-07-10}}</ref> The High School Involvement Partnership, private and public venture, was established through the help of Northrop Grumman, a global security firm. It has given assistance to some 7,000 high school students (juniors and seniors) since 1971 by means of one-on-one coaching as well as exposure to STEM areas and careers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Education Outreach Initiatives|url=https://www.northropgrumman.com/CorporateResponsibility/CorporateCitizenship/Education/Pages/OutreachInitiatives.aspx|access-date=2018-07-10|website=Northrop Grumman|language=en-US|archive-date=2018-07-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710101856/https://www.northropgrumman.com/CorporateResponsibility/CorporateCitizenship/Education/Pages/OutreachInitiatives.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== 2016–2021: Every Student Succeeds Act ====
The [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009|American Reinvestment and Recovery Act]], enacted in 2009, reserved more than $85 billion in public funds to be used for education.

The 2009 [[Council of Chief State School Officers]] and the [[National Governors Association]] launch the [[Common Core State Standards Initiative]].

In 2012 the Obama administration launched the [[Race to the Top]] competition aimed at spurring K–12 education reform through higher standards.<blockquote>"The Race to the Top – District competition will encourage transformative change within schools, targeted toward leveraging, enhancing, and improving classroom practices and resources.

The four key areas of reform include:

* Development of rigorous standards and better assessments
* Adoption of better data systems to provide schools, teachers, and parents with information about student progress
* Support for teachers and school leaders to become more effective
* Increased emphasis and resources for the rigorous interventions needed to turn around the lowest-performing schools"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Race to the Top|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/node/174631|access-date=2021-04-27|website=The White House|language=en|archive-date=2017-12-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228004741/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/node/174631|url-status=dead}}</ref>
</blockquote>In 2015, under the Obama administration, many of the more restrictive elements that were enacted under No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2001), were removed in the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ed.gov/essa|title=Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-07-09}}</ref> which limits the role of the federal government in school liability. [[Every Student Succeeds Act]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=U.S. Congress |title=PUBLIC LAW 114–95 |date=2015 |publisher=U.S. Congress |location=Washington D.C. |url=https://www.congress.gov/114/plaws/publ95/PLAW-114publ95.pdf |access-date=5 June 2023}}</ref> reformed educational standards by "moving away from such high stakes and assessment based accountability models" and focused on assessing student achievement from a holistic approach by utilizing qualitative measures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Close|first1=Kevin|last2=Amrein-Beardsley|first2=Audrey|last3=Collins|first3=Clarin|date=2020-04-13|title=Putting teacher evaluation systems on the map: An overview of states' teacher evaluation systems post–Every Student Succeeds Act|url=https://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/5252|journal=Education Policy Analysis Archives|volume=28|pages=8|doi=10.14507/epaa.28.5252|issn=1068-2341|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some argue that giving states more authority can help prevent considerable discrepancies in educational performance across different states.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/how-the-u-s-department-of-education-can-foster-education-reform-in-the-era-of-trump-and-essa/|title=How the U.S. Department of Education can foster education reform in the era of Trump and ESSA|last=Jacob|first=Brian A.|date=2017-02-02|work=Brookings|access-date=2018-07-09|language=en-US}}</ref> ESSA was approved by former President Obama in 2015 which amended and empowered the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maranto |first1=Robert |last2=McShane |first2=Michael Q. |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137030931 |doi=10.1057/9781137030931_7 |chapter=Reauthorizing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act |title=President Obama and Education Reform |year=2012}}</ref> The Department of Education has the choice to carry out measures in drawing attention to said differences by pinpointing lowest-performing state governments and supplying information on the condition and progress of each state on different educational parameters. It can also provide reasonable funding along with technical aid to help states with similar demographics collaborate in improving their public education programs.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education-k-12/reports/2016/03/02/132053/strategies-to-improve-low-performing-schools-under-the-every-student-succeeds-act/|title=Strategies to Improve Low-Performing Schools Under the Every Student Succeeds Act - Center for American Progress|work=Center for American Progress|access-date=2018-07-09|language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Social and emotional learning: strengths-based education model ====
This uses a methodology that values purposeful engagement in activities that turn students into self-reliant and efficient learners. Holding on to the view that everyone possesses natural gifts that are unique to one's personality (e.g. computational aptitude, musical talent, visual arts abilities), it likewise upholds the idea that children, despite their inexperience and tender age, are capable of coping with anguish, able to survive hardships, and can rise above difficult times.<ref>Lopez, S.J (2009). "The principles of strengths-based education" (PDF). ''Journal of College and Character''. '''X''': 1–6.</ref><ref>Resiliency Initiatives (2011). "Embracing a strength-based perspective and practice in education". ''The California School Psychologist''. '''9''': 1–24.</ref><ref>Rawana, E. P. & Brownlee, K. (2009). "Making the possible probable: A strength-based assessment and intervention framework for clinical work with parents, children and adolescents." ''Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Service''s, 90, 255-260</ref><ref>Passarelli, A. (2010). "A strengths-based approach to outdoor and adventure education: Possibilities for personal growth". ''Journal of Experiential Education''. '''33''': 120–135</ref>

==== Trump administration ====
In 2017, [[Betsy DeVos]] was instated as the 11th Secretary of Education. A strong proponent of school choice, school voucher programs, and charter schools, DeVos was a much-contested choice as her own education and career had little to do with formal experience in the US education system.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bauer|first1=Patricia|title=Assistant Editor|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Betsy-DeVos|website=britannica.com|date=4 January 2024 |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>  In a Republican-dominated senate, she received a 50–50 vote - a tie that was broken by Vice President Mike Pence.  Prior to her appointment, DeVos received a BA degree in business economics from Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan and she served as chairman of an investment management firm, The Windquest Group. She supported the idea of leaving education to state governments under the new K-12 legislation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/education/states-bristle-devos-department-education-critique-k-12-plans|title=States bristle as DeVos and Department of Education critique their K-12 plans|website=PBS NewsHour|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-09|date=2017-07-27}}</ref> DeVos cited the interventionist approach of the federal government to education policy following the signing of the ESSA. The primary approach to that rule has not changed significantly. Her opinion was that the education movement [[Populism|populist politics]] or populism<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2016/12/19/what-is-populism|title=What is populism?|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=2018-07-09|language=en}}</ref> encouraged reformers to commit promises which were not very realistic and therefore difficult to deliver.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/why-education-reform-espoused-by-betsy-devos-mark-zuckerberg-and-others-lives-on-despite-its-many-failures-2018-03-12|title=Why 'education reform' espoused by Betsy DeVos, Mark Zuckerberg and others lives on despite its many failures|last=Schneider|first=Jack|work=MarketWatch|access-date=2018-07-09|language=en-US}}</ref>

On July 31, 2018, President Donald Trump signed the Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (HR 2353)  The Act reauthorized the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, a $1.2 billion program modified by the United States Congress in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|title=PCRN: Perkins Act|url=https://cte.ed.gov/legislation/about-perkins-iv|access-date=2018-08-06|website=cte.ed.gov|archive-date=2018-08-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806115431/https://cte.ed.gov/legislation/about-perkins-iv|url-status=dead}}</ref> A move to change the Higher Education Act was also deferred.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ujifusa|first=Andrew|title=Donald Trump Signs First Major Education Policy Bill of His Presidency|language=en-US|work=Education Week|url=https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2018/07/31/donald-trump-signs-career-technical-education-bill.html|access-date=2018-08-06}}</ref>

The legislation enacted on July 1, 2019, replaced the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education (Perkins IV) Act of 2006. Stipulations in Perkins V enables school districts to make use of federal subsidies for all students' career search and development activities in the middle grades as well as comprehensive guidance and academic mentoring in the upper grades.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gewertz|first=Catherine|title=What Is Career and Technical Education, Anyway?|language=en-US|work=Education Week|url=https://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/career-technical-education/index.html|access-date=2018-08-06}}</ref> At the same time, this law revised the meaning of "special populations" to include homeless persons, foster youth, those who left the foster care system, and children with parents on active duty in the United States armed forces.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-08-02|title=Strengthening Career & Technical Education for 21st Century Act Signed|language=en-US|work=ED.gov Blog|url=https://blog.ed.gov/2018/08/strengthening-career-technical-education-21st-century-act-signed-law/|access-date=2018-08-06|archive-date=2018-08-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806115724/https://blog.ed.gov/2018/08/strengthening-career-technical-education-21st-century-act-signed-law/|url-status=dead}}</ref>