Editing Cultural imperialism (section)

==In history==
{{Globalize|section|date=September 2023|reason=missing information on non-Western examples, e.g. Tibet, Ottomans, Imperial Japan.}}
Although the term was popularised in the 1960s, and was used by its original proponents to refer to cultural hegemonies in a post-colonial world, cultural imperialism has also been used to refer to times further in the past.

===Antiquity===
The [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] are known for spreading their culture around the Mediterranean and Near East through trade and conquest. During the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic Period]], the burgeoning Greek city-states established settlements and colonies across the [[Mediterranean Sea]], especially in [[Sicily]] and southern [[Italy]], influencing the [[Etruscans|Etruscan]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] peoples of the region. In the late fourth century BC, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered Persian and Indian territories all the way to the [[Indus River Valley]] and [[Punjab]], spreading [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek religion]], art, and science along the way. This resulted in the rise of [[Hellenistic Period|Hellenistic]] kingdoms and cities across Egypt, the Near East, Central Asia, and Northwest India where Greek culture fused with the cultures of the indigenous peoples. The Greek influence prevailed even longer in science and literature, where medieval Muslim scholars in the Middle East studied the writings of [[Aristotle]] for scientific learning.

The [[Roman Empire]] was also an early example of cultural imperialism. Early Rome, in its conquest of Italy, assimilated the people of [[Etruria]] by replacing the [[Etruscan language]] with Latin, which led to the demise of that language and many aspects of [[Etruscan civilisation]].<ref name="books.google.co.uk">{{cite book |last1=Kolb |first1=RW. |title=Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society |date=2007 |publisher=SAGE Publications |page=537 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v751AwAAQBAJ&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+rome&pg=PT607|isbn=9781452265698 }}</ref> Cultural [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] was imposed on many parts of Rome's empire by "many regions receiving Roman culture unwillingly, as a form of cultural imperialism."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ermatinger |first1=JW. |title=The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdBEHD4XQ-0C&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+rome&pg=PA1|isbn=9780313326929 }}</ref> For example, when Greece was conquered by the Roman armies, Rome set about altering the culture of Greece to conform with Roman ideals. For instance, the Greek habit of stripping naked, in public, for exercise, was looked on askance by Roman writers, who considered the practice to be a cause of the Greeks' effeminacy and enslavement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldhill |first1=S. |title=Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=2 & 114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rbwCTL507fsC&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+rome&pg=PA21|isbn=9780521030878 }}</ref> The Roman example has been linked to modern instances of European imperialism in African countries, bridging the two instances with Slavoj Zizek's discussions of 'empty signifiers'.<ref name="Sabrin2013"/> The [[Pax Romana]] was secured in the empire, in part, by the "forced acculturation of the culturally diverse populations that Rome had conquered."<ref name="books.google.co.uk"/>

===British Empire===
British worldwide expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries was an economic and political phenomenon. However, "there was also a strong social and cultural dimension to it, which [[Rudyard Kipling]] termed the '[[white man's burden]]'." One of the ways this was carried out was by religious proselytising, by, amongst others, the [[London Missionary Society]], which was "an agent of British cultural imperialism."<ref>Olson, JS.; Shadle, R., [https://books.google.com/books?id=f0VnzMelzm8C&dq=%22cultural+imperialism%22+british+empire+-sport&pg=PA682 ''Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, Volume 2''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, p. 682.</ref> Another way, was by the imposition of educational material on the colonies for an "imperial curriculum". Robin A. Butlin writes, "The promotion of empire through books, illustrative materials, and educational syllabuses was widespread, part of an education policy geared to cultural imperialism".<ref>Bell, M., [https://books.google.com/books?id=sGa7AAAAIAAJ&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+curriculum ''Geography and Imperialism, 1820–1940''], Manchester University Press, 1995, p. 182.</ref> This was also true of science and technology in the empire. Douglas M. Peers and Nandini Gooptu note that "Most scholars of colonial science in India now prefer to stress the ways in which science and technology worked in the service of colonialism, as both a 'tool of empire' in the practical sense and as a vehicle for cultural imperialism. In other words, science developed in India in ways that reflected colonial priorities, tending to benefit Europeans at the expense of Indians, while remaining dependent on and subservient to scientific authorities in the colonial metropolis."<ref>Peers, DM.; Gooptu, N., [https://books.google.com/books?id=kTYfAQAAQBAJ&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+science ''India and the British Empire''], OUP Oxford, 2012. p. 192.</ref> British sports were spread across the Empire partially as a way of encouraging British values and cultural uniformity, though this was tempered by the fact that colonised peoples gained a sense of nationalistic pride by defeating the British in their own sports.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Batting for the British Empire: how Victorian cricket was more than just a game |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/cricket-colonialism-role-british-empire/ |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=HistoryExtra |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Love |first1=Adam |last2=Dzikus |first2=Lars |date=2020-02-26 |title=How India came to love cricket, favored sport of its colonial British rulers |url=http://theconversation.com/how-india-came-to-love-cricket-favored-sport-of-its-colonial-british-rulers-132302 |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Ronojoy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5mACgAAQBAJ |title=Nation at Play: A History of Sport in India |date=2015-10-27 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-53993-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-20 |title='The Revenge of Plassey': Football in the British Raj |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lseih/2020/07/20/the-revenge-of-plassey-football-in-the-british-raj/ |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=LSE International History}}</ref>

The analysis of cultural imperialism carried out by Edward Said drew principally from a study of the [[British Empire]].<ref>Webster, A., [https://books.google.com/books?id=EbgNECex-mkC&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22 ''The Debate on the Rise of British Imperialism''], Manchester University Press, 2006, p. 7.</ref> According to Danilo Raponi, the cultural imperialism of the British in the 19th century had a much wider effect than only in the British Empire. He writes, "To paraphrase Said, I see cultural imperialism as a complex cultural hegemony of a country, Great Britain, that in the 19th century had no rivals in terms of its ability to project its power across the world and to influence the cultural, political and commercial affairs of most countries. It is the 'cultural hegemony' of a country whose power to export the most fundamental ideas and concepts at the basis of its understanding of 'civilisation' knew practically no bounds." In this, for example, Raponi includes Italy.<ref>Raponi, D., [https://books.google.com/books?id=gw5HBQAAQBAJ&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+manifest ''Religion and Politics in the Risorgimento: Britain and the New Italy, 1861–1875''], Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, pp. 56–58.</ref>

===Other pre-Second World War examples===
The [[New Cambridge Modern History]] writes about the cultural imperialism of [[Napoleonic France]]. Napoleon used the [[Institut de France]] "as an instrument for transmuting French universalism into cultural imperialism." Members of the institute (who included Napoleon), descended upon Egypt in 1798. "Upon arrival they organised themselves into an Institute of Cairo. The Rosetta Stone is their most famous find. The science of Egyptology is their legacy."<ref>Crawley, CW. (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=mfV7qQ_oiVEC&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+egypt+126 ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 9, War and Peace in an Age of Upheaval, 1793–1830'']. Cambridge University Press, 1965, p. 126.</ref>

After the [[First World War]], Germans were worried about the extent of French influence in the [[Occupation of the Rhineland|occupied Rhineland]], which under the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was under [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] control from 1918 to 1930.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 October 2023 |title=Rhineland Occupation |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/rhineland-occupation |access-date=24 June 2024 |website=Encyclopedia.com |publisher=Encyclopedia of Modern Europe: Europe Since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction}}</ref> An early use of the term appeared in an essay by Paul Ruhlmann (as "Peter Hartmann") at that date, entitled ''French Cultural Imperialism on the Rhine''.<ref>Poley, J., [https://books.google.com/books?id=q__sRFdeKeIC&q=%22cultural+imperialism%22+french+rhine+1923 ''Decolonisation in Germany: Weimar Narratives of Colonial Loss and Foreign Occupation''], Peter Lang, 2007, pp. 165 & 216.</ref>

=== North American colonisation ===
Keeping in line with the trends of international imperialistic endeavours, the expansion of Canadian and American territory in the 19th century saw cultural imperialism employed as a means of control over [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|indigenous]] populations. This, when used in conjunction of more traditional forms of ethnic cleansing and genocide in the United States, saw devastating, lasting effects on indigenous communities.

In 2017 Canada celebrated its 150-year anniversary of the confederating of three British colonies. As Catherine Murton Stoehr points out in ''Origins'', a publication organised by the history departments of [[Ohio State University]] and [[Miami University]], the occasion came with remembrance of Canada's treatment of First Nations people.

{{blockquote|A mere 9 years after the 1867 signing of confederation Canada passed "The Indian Act", a separate and not equal form of government especially for First Nations. The Indian Act remains in place today, confining and constraining Indigenous jurisdiction in every area of life, in direct contravention of the nation's founding treaties with indigenous nations.}}

Numerous policies focused on indigenous persons came into effect shortly thereafter. Most notable is the use of residential schools across Canada as a means to remove indigenous persons from their culture and instill in them the beliefs and values of the majorised colonial hegemony. The policies of these schools, as described by [[Ward Churchill]] in his book ''[[Kill the Indian, Save the Man]]'', were to forcefully assimilate students who were often removed with force from their families. These schools forbid students from using their native languages and participating in their own cultural practices. Residential schools were largely run by [[Christianity|Christian]] churches, operating in conjunction with Christian missions with minimal government oversight. The book, ''Stolen Lives: The Indigenous peoples of Canada and the Indian Residentials Schools'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facinghistory.org/stolen-lives-indigenous-peoples-canada-and-indian-residential-schools|title=Stolen Lives: The Indigenous Peoples of Canada and the Indian Residential Schools|website=Facing History and Ourselves|date=23 June 2017 |access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref> describes this form of operation: "The government provided little leadership, and the clergy in charge were left to decide what to teach and how to teach it. Their priority was to impart the teachings of their church or order—not to provide a good education that could help students in their post-graduation lives." In a ''[[New York Times]]'' op-ed, Gabrielle Scrimshaw describes her grandparents being forced to send her mother to one of these schools or risk imprisonment. After hiding her mother on "school pick up day" so as to avoid sending their daughter to institutions whose abuse was well known at the time (mid-20th century). Scrimshaw's mother was left with limited options for further education she says and is today illiterate as a result. Scrimshaw explains, "Seven generations of my ancestors went through these schools. Each new family member enrolled meant a compounding of abuse and a steady loss of identity, culture and hope. My mother was the last generation. the experience left her broken, and like so many, she turned to substances to numb these pains."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Scrimshaw|first=Gabrielle|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/30/opinion/canadas-hidden-history-my-mother-and-me.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/30/opinion/canadas-hidden-history-my-mother-and-me.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited|title=Opinion {{!}} Canada's Hidden History, My Mother and Me|date=2017-06-30|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-03-03|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> A report, republished by [[CBC News]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/truth-and-reconciliation-commission-by-the-numbers-1.3096185|title=Residential School Students Had Same Odds of Dying as Soldiers in WW II|last=Schwartz|first=Daniel|website=CBC News|access-date=3 March 2020}}</ref> estimates nearly 6,000 children died in the care of these schools.

The colonisation of native peoples in North America remains active today despite the closing of the majority of residential schools. This form of cultural imperialism continues in the use of Native Americans as [[mascot]]s for schools and athletic teams. Jason Edward Black, a professor and chair in the Department of Communication Studies at the [[University of North Carolina at Charlotte]], describes how the use of Native Americans as mascots furthers the colonial attitudes of the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Black|first=Jason Edward|s2cid=162211313|date=2002|title=The "Mascotting" of Native America: Construction, Commodity, and Assimilation|journal=American Indian Quarterly|volume=26|issue=4|pages=605–622|issn=0095-182X|jstor=4128504|doi=10.1353/aiq.2004.0003}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Indigenous groups, along with cultural studies scholars, view the Native mascots as hegemonic devices–commodification tools–that advance a contemporary manifest destiny by marketing Native culture as Euromerican identity.}}

In ''Deciphering Pocahontas'',<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/15295030109367122 |title = Deciphering Pocahontas: Unpackaging the commodification of a native American woman|year = 2001|last1 = Ono|first1 = Kent A.|last2 = Buescher|first2 = Derek T.|s2cid = 143685050|journal = Critical Studies in Media Communication|volume = 18|pages = 23–43}}</ref> Kent Ono and Derek Buescher wrote: "Euro-American culture has made a habit of appropriating, and redefining what is 'distinctive' and constitutive of Native Americans."

===Nazi colonialism===
''Cultural imperialism'' has also been used in connection with the expansion of German influence under the [[Nazis]] in the middle of the twentieth century. Alan Steinweis and Daniel Rogers note that even before the Nazis came to power, "Already in the Weimar Republic, German academic specialists on eastern Europe had contributed through their publications and teaching to the legitimization of German territorial [[revanchism]] and cultural imperialism. These scholars operated primarily in the disciplines of history, economics, geography, and literature."<ref>Steinweis, AE; Rogers, DE., [https://books.google.com/books?id=RZ7igJKC6YQC&dq=nazi+%22cultural+imperialism%22&pg=PA72 ''The Impact of Nazism: New Perspectives on the Third Reich and Its Legacy''], U of Nebraska Press, 2003, p.72.</ref> In the area of music, Michael Kater writes that during the WWII German occupation of France, [[Hans Rosbaud]], a German conductor based by the Nazi regime in [[Strasbourg]], became "at least nominally, a servant of Nazi cultural imperialism directed against the French."<ref>Kater, MH., [https://books.google.com/books?id=JGSDC5w-pfMC&dq=nazi+%22cultural+imperialism%22&pg=PA275 ''Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits''], Oxford University Press, USA, 1999, p.275.</ref>

In Italy during the war, Germany pursued "a European cultural front that gravitates around German culture". The Nazi propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] set up the European Union of Writers, "one of Goebbels's most ambitious projects for Nazi cultural hegemony. Presumably a means of gathering authors from Germany, Italy, and the occupied countries to plan the literary life of the new Europe, the union soon emerged as a vehicle of German cultural imperialism."<ref>Ben-Ghiat, R., [https://books.google.com/books?id=MBFe5v2ZTy4C&dq=nazi+%22cultural+imperialism%22&pg=PA179 ''Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945''], University of California Press, 2001, p.17.</ref> For other parts of Europe, [[Robert Gerwarth]], writing about cultural imperialism and [[Reinhard Heydrich]], states that the "Nazis' Germanization project was based on a historically unprecedented programme of racial stock-taking, theft, expulsion and murder." Also, "The full integration of the [Czech] [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia|Protectorate]] into this New Order required the complete Germanization of the Protectorate's cultural life and the eradication of indigenous Czech and Jewish culture."<ref>Gerwarth, R., [https://books.google.com/books?id=yUz33XJnJOMC&dq=nazi+%22cultural+imperialism%22&pg=PA268 ''Hitler's Hangman: The Life of Heydrich''], Yale University Press, 2011, p. 263.</ref>

The actions by [[Nazi Germany]] reflect on the notion of race and culture playing a significant role in imperialism. The idea that there is a distinction between the Germans and the Jews has created the illusion of Germans believing they were superior to the Jewish inferiors, the notion of us/them and self/others.<ref>Gregory, Derek, Johnston, Ron, and Pratt, Geraldine, eds. Dictionary of Human Geography (5th Edition). Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 1 February 2015.</ref>{{Relevance inline|date=July 2015}}

===Western imperialism===
Cultural imperialism manifests in the [[Western world]] in the form legal system to include commodification and marketing of indigenous resources (example medicinal, spiritual or artistic) and genetic resources (example human [[DNA]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=western cultural imperialism: Topics by WorldWideScience.org |url=https://worldwidescience.org/topicpages/w/western+cultural+imperialism.html |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=worldwidescience.org}}</ref>

====Americanization====
{{main|Americanization}}
{{further|American imperialism}}
The terms "[[McDonaldization]]",<ref>{{cite book|author=George Ritzer|title=The McDonaldization of Society|date=2009|place= Los Angeles, USA|publisher= Pine Forge Press}}</ref> "[[Disneyization]]" and "[[Cocacolonization]]"<ref>{{cite news|title=Viewpoints; A Brief History of Coca-Colonization|author=Mark Pendergrast|date=15 August 1993|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/15/business/viewpoints-a-brief-history-of-coca-colonization.html|access-date=25 November 2014|website=The New York Times}}</ref> have been coined to describe the spread of Western cultural influence, especially after the [[Cold War (1985–1991)|end of the Cold War]]. These Western influences often have personal, social, economical, and historical impact on people globally depending on the country and region. “Virtually all countries are moving discernibly toward the U.S. model, and the process is self reinforcing”, Herman, E. and McChesney, R. (n.d.). "Media Globalization: The US Experience and Influence".

There are many countries affected by the US and their pop-culture. For example, the film industry in Nigeria referred to as "Nollywood" being the second largest as it produces more films annually than the United States, their films are shown across Africa.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Martin|first1=Judith N.|title=Intercultural Communication and Dialectics Revisited|date=2011-04-19|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444390681.ch5|work=The Handbook of Critical Intercultural Communication|pages=59–83|place=Oxford, UK|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4443-9068-1|access-date=2020-10-26|last2=Nakayama|first2=Thomas K.|doi=10.1002/9781444390681.ch5}}</ref> Another term that describes the spread of Western cultural influence is "Hollywoodization" it is when American culture is promoted through Hollywood films which can culturally affect the viewers of Hollywood films.<ref name=":1" />