Editing Carl Linnaeus (section)

==Return to Sweden==
[[File:LinnaeusWeddingPortrait.jpg|thumb|upright|Wedding portrait]]

When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to [[Falun]], where he entered into an engagement to [[Sara Elisabeth Moræa]]. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family.<ref name=nrm.se>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nrm.se/researchandcollections/botany/phanerogamicbotany/botanicalhistory/carlvonlinne.4.5fdc727f10d795b1c6e80007524.html |title=Carl Linnaeus |access-date=3 April 2010 |author=Louise Petrusson |publisher=Swedish Museum of Natural History |archive-date=3 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503175018/http://www.nrm.se/researchandcollections/botany/phanerogamicbotany/botanicalhistory/carlvonlinne.4.5fdc727f10d795b1c6e80007524.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 141.</ref> Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with [[Carl Gustav Tessin|Count Carl Gustav Tessin]], who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty.<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 146–147.</ref><ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 16.</ref> During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Science]]; he became the first [[Praeses#Modern uses|Praeses]] of the academy by drawing of lots.<ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], pp. 103–105.</ref>

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, [[Carl Linnaeus the Younger|Carl]]. Two years later, a daughter, [[Elisabeth Christina von Linné|Elisabeth Christina]], was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.<ref name=nrm.se/><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 382.</ref>

[[File:CarlvonLinne house.jpg|thumb|House in [[Uppsala]]]]
In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and [[natural history]], instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], pp. 49–50.</ref>

=== Öland and Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of [[Öland]] and [[Gotland]] with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to [[Visby]] in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''{{lang|sv|Öländska och Gothländska Resa}}'', written in Swedish. Like ''{{lang|la|Flora Lapponica}}'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.<ref name="Koerner115">[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 115.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 137–142.</ref>

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''{{lang|la|Flora Suecica}}'' and ''{{lang|la|Fauna Suecica}}''. ''{{lang|la|Flora Suecica}}'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''{{lang|la|Fauna Suecica}}'' was [[zoology|zoological]].<ref name=nrm.se/><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 117–118.</ref> [[Anders Celsius]] had created the temperature scale [[Celsius|named after him]] in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0&nbsp;°C and freezing at 100&nbsp;°C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745.<ref>[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 204.</ref>

===Västergötland===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of [[Västergötland]]. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''{{lang|sv|Wästgöta-Resa}}'', published the next year.<ref name="Koerner115"/><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 159.</ref> After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province [[Scania]]. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.<ref name=nrm.se/>

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title [[archiater]], or chief physician, by the Swedish king [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Frederick]]—a mark of great respect.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 165.</ref> The same year he was elected member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Academy of Sciences in Berlin]].<ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], p. 167.</ref>

===Scania===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to [[Scania]], again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow [[walnut]] and [[Sorbus intermedia|Swedish whitebeam]] trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited the [[Ramlösa Hälsobrunn|Ramlösa mineral spa]], where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Linnaeus|first=Carl|url=https://sv.wikisource.org/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9s_resa_till_Sk%C3%A5ne_1749:_11_juni|title=Carl von Linnés resa till Skåne 1749|publisher=|year=1751|location=Stockholm|language=sv|chapter=Carl von Linnés resa till Skåne 1749: 11 juni|chapter-url=https://sv.wikisource.org/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9s_resa_till_Sk%C3%A5ne_1749:_11_juni|ref=none|access-date=30 January 2022|archive-date=25 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125231554/https://sv.wikisource.org/wiki/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9s_resa_till_Sk%C3%A5ne_1749:_11_juni|url-status=live}}</ref> The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''{{lang|sv|Skånska Resa}}''.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 198–205.</ref><ref name="Koerner116">[[#Koerner|Koerner (1999)]], p. 116.</ref>

===Rector of Uppsala University===
[[File:CarlvonLinne Hammarby.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|Summer home at his Hammarby estate]]
[[File:CarlvonLinne Garden.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Linnaean Garden]] in Uppsala]]

In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed.<ref name=nrm.se/> Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles".<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], pp. 56–57.</ref> His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 173–174.</ref>

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''[[Philosophia Botanica]]'' in 1751.{{sfn|Linnaeus|1751}} The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 221.</ref>

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
[[File:Nutrix noverca.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Cover of ''Nutrix Noverca'' (1752)]]
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have [[wet nurse]]s for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student,<ref>{{cite book| author=Tönz, Otmar| chapter=Breastfeeding in modern and ancient times: Facts, ideas and beliefs| page=12| title= Short and Long Term Effects of Breast Feeding on Child Health| editor1=Koletzko, Berthold|editor2=Michaelsen, K. F.|editor3=Hernell, Olle| publisher=Springer| year=2006}}</ref> based on their experiences.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/NutrixNoverca|title=Nutrix Noverca|year=1752|author=Carl Linnaeus|language=la}}</ref> In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by [[Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert|J. E. Gilibert]] in 1770 as {{lang|fr|La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire}}. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps<ref name="Koerner, Lisbet 2009 69–70">{{cite book|author=Koerner, Lisbet| title=Linnaeus: Nature and Nation| year=2009| pages=69–70}}</ref> and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk.<ref name="Koerner, Lisbet 2009 69–70"/> It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.<ref>{{cite journal|title= Why Mammals are Called Mammals: Gender Politics in Eighteenth-Century Natural History| first=Londa| last=Schiebinger| s2cid=46119192| journal=The American Historical Review| volume=98| issue=2| year=1993|pages= 382–411 |jstor=2166840| doi=10.2307/2166840| pmid=11623150}}</ref>

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
{{main|Species Plantarum}}
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern [[botanical nomenclature]], in 1753.<ref name="Stace_p24">[[#Stace|Stace (1991)]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C&pg=PA24 p. 24].</ref> The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year.{{refn|1=The date of issue of both volumes was later, for practical purposes, arbitrarily set on 1 May, see Stearn, W. T. (1957), The preparation of the ''Species Plantarum'' and the introduction of binomial nomenclature, in: Species Plantarum, A Facsimile of the first edition, London, Ray Society: 72 and ICN (''Melbourne Code'')<ref>{{cite book |author1=McNeill, J. |author2=Barrie, F.R. |author3=Buck, W.R. |author4=Demoulin, V. |author5=Greuter, W. |author6=Hawksworth, D.L. |author7=Herendeen, P.S. |author8=Knapp, S. |author9=Marhold, K. |author10=Prado, J. |author11=Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F. |author12=Smith, G.F. |author13=Wiersema, J.H. |author14=Turland, N.J. |year=2012 |volume=Regnum Vegetabile 154 |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011 |publisher=A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG |isbn=978-3-87429-425-6 |url=http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title |access-date=28 July 2014 |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104060236/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=title |url-status=live }}</ref> Art. 13.4 Note 1: "The two volumes of Linnaeus' Species plantarum, ed. 1 (1753), which appeared in May and August, 1753, respectively, are treated as having been published simultaneously on 1 May 1753."|group=note}}<ref>[[#Sprague|Sprague (1953)]]</ref> The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species.<ref name="Gribbin47">[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], p. 47.</ref><ref>[[#Stöver|Stöver (1794)]], pp. 198–199.</ref> The same year the king dubbed him knight of the [[Order of the Polar Star]], the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 166.</ref>

===Ennoblement===
[[File:Linne CoA.jpg|thumb|right|His [[coat of arms]]]]
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added.<ref name="Koerner116"/><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 219.</ref> In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.<ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 220–224.</ref>

Since the initial release of ''{{lang|la|Systema Naturae}}'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for [[zoological nomenclature]], the equivalent of ''{{lang|la|Species Plantarum}}''.<ref name="Gribbin47"/><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 6.</ref>

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus [[nobility]] in 1757, but he was not [[ennobled]] until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as {{lang|la|Carolus a Linné|italics=no}}), 'Linné' being a shortened and [[French language|gallicised]] version of 'Linnæus', and the German [[nobiliary particle]] '[[von]]' signifying his ennoblement.<ref name="Blunt171"/> The noble family's [[coat of arms]] prominently features a [[Linnaea borealis|twinflower]], one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by [[Jan Frederik Gronovius|Gronovius]]. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg "to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''". At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the [[Aeneid]], which reads "''Famam extendere factis''": we extend our fame by our deeds.<ref>[[#Gribbin|Gribbin & Gribbin (2008)]], p. 62.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], p. 199.</ref><ref>[[#Blunt|Blunt (2004)]], pp. 229–230.</ref> Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Anecdotes of Linnaeus|page=v |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/ornithologyhummi06jardrich#page/n21/mode/2up|title=The Naturalist's Library. Volume VI. Ornithology. Humming birds, Part I.|editor=Jardine, William|publisher=Chatto & Windus|place=London|year=1865}}</ref>

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Gunnar |last=Broberg |author-link=Gunnar Broberg |title=Carl Linnaeus |publisher=Het Zweeds Instituut/Svenska Institutet |date=2006 |isbn=91-520-0919-X |page=24 |language=nl}}</ref> His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, [[Catherine II of Russia]] sent him seeds from her country.<ref>[http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_0.html Uppsala University, Linné Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123181433/http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/8_0.html |date=23 January 2012 }}, English language version</ref> He also corresponded with [[Giovanni Antonio Scopoli]], "the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire", who was a doctor and a botanist in [[Idrija]], [[Duchy of Carniola]] (nowadays [[Slovenia]]).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |title=A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala |first=Branko |last=Soban |newspaper=The Slovenian |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620023752/http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the [[olm]] and the [[dormouse]], two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''[[Scopolia]]'', the source of [[scopolamine]], after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |title=A Living Bond between Idrija and Uppsala |access-date=1 December 2007 |last=Soban |first=Branko |date=January 2005 |work=Slovenija.svet |publisher=Slovene Emigrant Association |archive-date=20 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620023752/http://www.theslovenian.com/articles/soban.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio|title=Joannes A. Scopoli-Carl Linnaeus. Dopisovanje/Correspondence 1760–1775, ed. Darinka Soban|publisher=Slovenian Natural history society|location=Ljubljana}}</ref>