Editing B. F. Skinner (section)

===Reinforcement===
{{Main|Reinforcement}}
Reinforcement, a key concept of [[behaviorism]], is the primary process that shapes and controls behavior, and occurs in two ways: ''positive'' and ''negative''. In ''The Behavior of Organisms'' (1938), Skinner defines ''negative reinforcement'' to be synonymous with ''[[punishment]]'', i.e. the presentation of an aversive stimulus. This definition would subsequently be re-defined in ''Science and Human Behavior'' (1953).

In what has now become the standard set of definitions, ''positive'' reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the occurrence of some event (e.g., praise after some behavior is performed), whereas ''negative'' reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you).

Both types of reinforcement strengthen behavior, or increase the probability of a behavior reoccurring; the difference being in whether the reinforcing event is something applied (positive reinforcement) or something removed or avoided (negative reinforcement). '''[[Punishment (psychology)|Punishment]]''' can be the ''application'' of an aversive stimulus/event (positive punishment or punishment by contingent stimulation) or the ''removal'' of a desirable stimulus (negative punishment or punishment by contingent withdrawal). Though punishment is often used to suppress behavior, Skinner argued that this suppression is temporary and has a number of other, often unwanted, consequences.<ref>Skinner, B. F. 1953. ''Science and Human Behavior''. New York: Macmillan.</ref> '''Extinction''' is the absence of a rewarding stimulus, which weakens behavior.

Writing in 1981, Skinner pointed out that Darwinian [[natural selection]] is, like reinforced behavior, "selection by consequences". Though, as he said, natural selection has now "made its case," he regretted that essentially the same process, "reinforcement", was less widely accepted as underlying human behavior.<ref name="Skinner1981">{{Cite journal|author=Skinner, B. F.|date=1981|title=Selection by Consequences|url=http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Classes/31174/Documents/Selection%20by%20Consequences.pdf|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=213|issue=4507|pages=501–04|bibcode=1981Sci...213..501S|doi=10.1126/science.7244649|pmid=7244649|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702230825/http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Classes/31174/Documents/Selection%20by%20Consequences.pdf|archive-date=July 2, 2010|access-date=August 14, 2010}}</ref>

==== Schedules of reinforcement ====
{{Main|Schedules of reinforcement}}
Skinner recognized that behavior is typically reinforced more than once, and, together with [[Charles Ferster]], he did an extensive analysis of the various ways in which reinforcements could be arranged over time, calling it the ''[[schedules of reinforcement]]''.<ref name="SR"/>

The most notable schedules of reinforcement studied by Skinner were continuous, interval (fixed or variable), and ratio (fixed or variable). All are methods used in [[operant conditioning]].

* '''Continuous reinforcement''' ('''CRF'''): each time a specific action is performed the subject receives a reinforcement. This method is effective when teaching a new behavior because it quickly establishes an association between the target behavior and the reinforcer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Different Types of Reinforcement Schedules|url=http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/sites/autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/files/Reinforcement-Table1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/sites/autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/files/Reinforcement-Table1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|website=autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu|publisher=National Professional Development Center for Autism Spectrum Disorders|access-date=February 14, 2015}}</ref>
* '''Interval schedule''': based on the time intervals between reinforcements.<ref name="Schacter"/>
**'''Fixed interval schedule''' ('''FI'''): A procedure in which reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made. This schedule yields a response rate that is low just after reinforcement and becomes rapid just before the next reinforcement is scheduled.
**'''Variable interval schedule''' ('''VI'''): A procedure in which behavior is reinforced after scheduled but unpredictable time durations following the previous reinforcement. This schedule yields the most stable rate of responding, with the average frequency of reinforcement determining the frequency of response.
*'''Ratio schedules''': based on the ratio of responses to reinforcements.<ref name="Schacter"/>
**'''Fixed ratio schedule''' ('''FR'''): A procedure in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made.
**'''Variable ratio schedule''' ('''VR'''):<ref name="Schacter"/> A procedure in which reinforcement comes after a number of responses that is randomized from one reinforcement to the next (e.g. slot machines). The lower the number of responses required, the higher the response rate tends to be. Variable ratio schedules tend to produce very rapid and steady responding rates in contrast with fixed ratio schedules where the frequency of response usually drops after the reinforcement occurs.

==== Token economy ====
"Skinnerian" principles have been used to create [[Token economy|token economies]] in a number of institutions, such as psychiatric hospitals. When participants behave in desirable ways, their behavior is reinforced with tokens that can be changed for such items as candy, cigarettes, coffee, or the exclusive use of a radio or television set.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hergenhahn|first=B. R.|title=An Introduction to the History of Psychology|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|year=2009|isbn=978-0-495-50621-8|location=United States|page=449}}</ref>