Editing Amman (section)

===Modern era (1878–present)===
{{multiple image
| footer            = The historical center of Amman, showing the Roman ruins in 1878 immediately before its modern resettlement (left), and the same area in 2012 (right)
| image1            = View of the Roman theater and Odeon in Amman, 1878.jpg
| width1            = 175
| image2            = Amman Roman Theater 1.jpg
| width2            = 182
| align             = left
}}

====Late Ottoman period (1878–1917)====
Amman began to be resettled in 1878, when several hundred Muslim [[Circassians]] arrived following their expulsion from the [[North Caucasus]] by the [[Russian Empire]] during the events of the [[Russo-Circassian War]].<ref name=Hamed>{{Cite journal|last=Hamed-Troyansky|first=Vladimir|date=2017|title=Circassians and the Making of Amman, 1878–1914|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=49|issue=4|pages=605–623|doi=10.1017/S0020743817000617|s2cid=165801425}}</ref> Between 1878 and 1910, tens of thousands of Circassians became refugees in the Ottoman Empire, which had moved large numbers of them into its province of [[Ottoman Syria|Syria]].<ref name=Rogan2002>{{cite book| author=Eugene L. Rogan| title=Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AMAbXGQDmDYC&pg=PA73| date=11 April 2002| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]| isbn=978-0-521-89223-0| page=73| access-date=29 October 2015| archive-date=29 April 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429084437/https://books.google.com/books?id=AMAbXGQDmDYC&pg=PA73| url-status=live}}</ref> The Ottoman authorities directed the [[Circassians in Jordan|Circassians]], who were mainly of peasant stock, to settle in Amman, and distributed arable land among them. Their settlement was a partial manifestation of the Ottoman statesman [[Kamil Pasha]]'s project, which did not materialize, to establish the Amman Province ([[vilayet]]) which, along with other sites in its vicinity, would become Circassian-populated townships guaranteeing the security of the Damascus–[[Medina]] highway.<ref name=Hanania2>Hanania 2018, p. 2.</ref> The first Circassian settlers, who belonged to the [[Shapsug]] tribe,<ref name=Hanania3>Hanania 2018, p. 3.</ref> lived near Amman's Roman theater and incorporated its stones into the houses they built.<ref name=Hamed/> The English traveller [[Laurence Oliphant (author)|Laurence Oliphant]] noted in his 1879 visit that most of the original Circassian settlers had left Amman by then, with about 150 remaining.<ref name=Hanania3/> They were joined by Circassians from the [[Kabardia]]n and [[Abzakh]] tribes in 1880–1892.<ref name=Hanania3/>

[[File:Map of Amman from the Survey of Palestine 1889 (as surveyed in 1881).jpg|thumb|right|The first scientific map of Amman, 1881. The British surveyors noted that: "The Circassian colony established by the Sultan at Amman about 1879 [is] neither prosperous nor likely to become so".<ref>[[PEF Survey of Palestine]], [https://archive.org/details/surveyofeasternp00conduoft Survey of Eastern Palestine] (1889), pages 29 and 291</ref>]]

Until 1900 settlement was concentrated in the valley and slopes of the Amman stream and settlers built mud-brick houses with wooden roofs.<ref name=Hanania3/> The French Dominican priest [[Marie-Joseph Lagrange]] commented in 1890 about Amman: "A mosque, the ancient bridges, all that jumbled with the houses of the Circassians gives Amman a remarkable physiognomy".<ref name=Hanania3/> The new village became a ''[[nahiye]]'' (subdistrict) center of the ''[[kaza]]'' of al-Salt in the [[Karak Sanjak]] established in 1894.<ref name=Hanania3/> By 1908 Amman contained 800 houses divided between three main quarters, Shapsug, Kabartai and Abzakh, each called after the Circassian groupings which respectively settled there, a number of mosques, open-air markets, shops, bakeries, mills, a textile factory, a post and telegraph office and a government compound ([[Saray (building)|saraya]]).<ref name=Hanania3/> [[Kurds|Kurdish]] settlers formed their own quarter called "al-Akrad" after them, while a number of townspeople from nearby al-Salt and [[al-Fuheis]], seeking to avoid high taxes and conscription or attracted by financial incentives, and traders from [[Najd]] and [[Morocco]], had also moved to the town.<ref>Hanania 2018, pp. 3–4.</ref>

[[File:Z Ottoman Ten arches Amman 2.jpg|thumb|left|Ottoman [[Ten Arches Bridge]], built in 1910 near Amman as part of the [[Hejaz railway]]]]

The city's demographics changed dramatically after the Ottoman government's decision to construct the [[Hejaz Railway]], which linked Damascus and Medina, and facilitated the annual [[Hajj]] pilgrimage and trade. Operational in central Transjordan since 1903, the [[Hejaz Railway]] helped to transform Amman from a small village into a major commercial hub in the region. Circassian entrepreneurship, facilitated by the railway, helped to attract investment from merchants from Damascus, Nablus, and Jerusalem, many of whom moved to Amman in the 1900s and 1910s.<ref name=Hamed/> Amman's first municipal council was established in 1909, and Circassian [[Ismael Babouk]] was elected as its mayor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.albawaba.com/news/deputy-mayor-amman-inaugurates-%E2%80%9Cdocumenting-amman%E2%80%9D-conference|title=Deputy Mayor of Amman Inaugurates "Documenting Amman" Conference|work=Bawaba|access-date=30 January 2019|date=30 July 2009|archive-date=30 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130162104/https://www.albawaba.com/news/deputy-mayor-amman-inaugurates-%E2%80%9Cdocumenting-amman%E2%80%9D-conference|url-status=live}}</ref>

;First World War
The [[First Battle of Amman|First]] and [[Second Battle of Amman]] were part of the [[Middle Eastern theater of World War I|Middle Eastern theatre]] of [[World War I]] and the [[Arab Revolt]], taking place in 1918. Amman had a strategic location along the Hejaz Railway; its capture by British forces and the [[Sharifian Army|Hashemite Arab army]] facilitated the British advance towards [[Damascus]].<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA98| title=Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History| author1=Spencer C. Tucker| author2=Priscilla Mary Roberts| year=2005| publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]| isbn=978-1-85109-420-2| page=98| access-date=24 August 2017| archive-date=18 May 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518225250/https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA98| url-status=live}}</ref> The second battle was won by the British, resulting in the establishment of the [[Mandate for Palestine|British Mandate]].

====British Mandate; Emirate of Transjordan (1921–1946)====
[[File:רבת עמון - מראה-JNF001650.jpeg|thumb|Amman 1928]]

In 1921, the Hashemite emir and later king [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah I]] designated Amman instead of al-Salt to be the capital of the newly created state, the [[Emirate of Transjordan]], which became the [[Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]] in 1950. Its function as the capital of the country attracted immigrants from different Levantine areas, particularly from al-Salt, a nearby city that had been the largest urban settlement east of the [[Jordan River]] at the time. The early settlers who came from [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] were overwhelmingly from [[Nablus]], from which many of al-Salt's inhabitants had originated. They were joined by other immigrants from Damascus. Amman later attracted people from the southern part of the country, particularly al-Karak and [[Madaba]]. The city's population was around 10,000 in the 1930s.<ref name=HistoryP>{{cite book |author1=Reem Khamis-Dakwar |author2=Karen Froud |date=2014 |title=Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XXVI: Papers from the annual symposium on Arabic Linguistics. New York, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ctjLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |page=31 |isbn=978-9027269683 |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725233244/https://books.google.com/books?id=ctjLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The British report from 1933 shows around 1,700 Circassians living in Amman.<ref>Report by His Britannic Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the Council of the League of Nations on the Administration of Palestine and Trans-Jordan for the year 1933, Colonial No. 94, His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1934, p. 305.</ref> Yet the community was far from insulated. Local urban and nomadic communities formed alliances with the Circassians, some of which are still present today. This cemented the status of Circassians in the re-established city.<ref name=Hamed/>

====Post-independence (1946–present)====
[[File:Sprt City Amman.JPG|thumb|Amman in 1985]]
[[File:Jamal Abdul Nasser Circle Amman Jordan.jpg|thumb|Amman in 2013]]

Jordan gained its independence in 1946 and Amman was designated the country's capital. Amman received many refugees during wartime events in nearby countries, beginning with the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. A second wave arrived after the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967. In 1970, Amman was a [[Battle of Amman (1970)|battlefield]] during the conflict between the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and the [[Royal Jordanian Army|Jordanian Army]] known as [[Black September in Jordan|Black September]]. The Jordanian Army defeated the PLO in 1971, and the latter were expelled to [[Lebanon]].<ref name=JWT>{{cite web| url=http://www.jordanwildernesstours.com/amman.htm| title=Amman| access-date=22 September 2015| work=Jordan Wild Tours| archive-date=26 October 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026025059/http://www.jordanwildernesstours.com/amman.htm| url-status=live}}</ref> The first wave of Iraqi refugees settled in the city after the 1991 [[Gulf War]], with a second wave occurring in the aftermath of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].

On 9 November 2005, [[Al-Qaeda]] under [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]]'s leadership launched [[2005 Amman bombings|coordinated explosions]] in three hotel lobbies in Amman, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured. The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians.<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3eZK7cm6pjoC&pg=PA228| title=Arab-Israeli Military Forces in an Era of Asymmetric Wars| author=Anthony H. Cordesman| publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]| date=2006| isbn=978-0-275-99186-9| page=228| access-date=24 August 2017| archive-date=18 October 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018104403/https://books.google.com/books?id=3eZK7cm6pjoC&pg=PA228| url-status=live}}</ref> Jordan's security as a whole was dramatically improved after the attack, and no major terrorist attacks have been reported since then.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.addustour.com/sn/962321/ |title=تـفـجيـرات عمـان.. حدث أليم لم ينل من إرادة الأردنيين |work=Addustor |publisher=Addustor newspaper |language=ar |access-date=23 September 2015 |date=9 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923173807/http://www.addustour.com/sn/962321/ |archive-date=23 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.jfranews.com.jo/more-96531-1-%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%20%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%202005%20%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%AA%20%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%20%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%20%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%AB%D8%B1%20%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%B8%D8%A9%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%87%20%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8| title=تفجيرات عمان 2005 دفعت بالأردن ليكون أكثر يقظة في تصديه للإرهاب| access-date=23 September 2015| language=ar| date=9 November 2014| work=JFRA News| archive-date=26 August 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826094157/http://www.jfranews.com.jo/more-96531-1-%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%20%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%202005%20%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%AA%20%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86%20%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%20%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%AB%D8%B1%20%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%B8%D8%A9%20%D9%81%D9%8A%20%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%87%20%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8| url-status=live}}</ref> Most recently a wave of [[Refugees of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian refugees]] have arrived in the city during the ongoing [[Syrian Civil War]] which began in 2011. Amman was a principal destination for refugees for the security and prosperity it offered.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/09/18/jordan-s-refugee-crisis/ihwc| title=Jordan's Refugee Crisis| access-date=23 September 2015| date=21 September 2015| publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]| author=Alexandra Francis| archive-date=23 September 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923193733/http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/09/18/jordan-s-refugee-crisis/ihwc| url-status=dead}}</ref>

During the 2010s, the city has experienced an economic, cultural and urban boom. The large growth in population has significantly increased the need for new accommodation, and new districts of the city were established at a quick pace. This strained Jordan's scarce water supply and exposed Amman to the dangers of quick expansion without careful municipal planning.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nordregio.org/amman-one-of-the-fastest-grown-cities-in-the-world-is-moving-towards-sustainable-city-planning/|title=Amman, one of the fastest grown cities in the world, is moving towards sustainable city planning|date=17 January 2019|accessdate=7 January 2023|work=Nordregio|archive-date=16 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116014216/https://www.nordregio.org/amman-one-of-the-fastest-grown-cities-in-the-world-is-moving-towards-sustainable-city-planning/|url-status=live}}</ref>