Editing Alfalfa (section)

=== Varieties ===
[[Image:Alfalfa square bales.jpg|thumbnail|Small square bales of alfalfa]]

Considerable research and development has been done with this important plant. Older [[cultivars]] such as 'Vernal' have been the standard for years, but many public and private varieties better adapted to particular climates are available.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0014.html|title=Alfalfa Variety Characteristics, AGF-014-92|access-date=17 October 2011|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150105060038/http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0014.html|archive-date=5 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Private companies release many new varieties each year in the US.<ref name = "msu">{{cite web |url=http://msuextension.org/publications/AgandNaturalResources/MT199303AG.pdf |title=Alfalfa Variety Selection |publisher=Msuextension.org |access-date=19 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326180653/http://msuextension.org/publications/AgandNaturalResources/MT199303AG.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Most varieties go dormant in the fall, with reduced growth in response to low temperatures and shorter days.<ref name = "msu"/> 'Nondormant' varieties that grow through the winter are planted in long-season environments such as Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, whereas 'dormant' varieties are planted in the Upper Midwest, Canada, and the Northeast.<ref name = "msu"/> 'Nondormant' varieties can be higher-yielding, but they are susceptible to winter-kill in cold climates and have poorer persistence.<ref name = "msu"/>

Most alfalfa cultivars contain genetic material from ''sickle medick'' ([[Medicago falcata|''M.''&nbsp;''falcata'']]), a [[crop wild relative]] of alfalfa that naturally hybridizes with ''M. sativa'' to produce ''sand lucerne'' (''M. sativa'' ssp. ''varia''). This species may bear either the purple flowers of alfalfa or the yellow of sickle medick, and is so called for its ready growth in sandy soil.<ref>Joseph Elwyn Wing, ''Alfalfa Farming in the U.S. 79 (Sanders Publishing Co. 1912)".</ref> Traits for insect resistance have also been introduced from ''M. glomerata'' and ''M. prostrata'', members of alfalfa's secondary [[gene pool]].<ref>Vincent HA, Wiersema J, Dobbie SL, Kell SP, Fielder H, Castañeda Alvarez NP, Guarino L, Eastwood R, Leόn B, Maxted N. 2012. [http://www.cwrdiversity.org/checklist/genepool-details.php?id%5b%5d=29&id%5b%5d=290&id%5b%5d=288& A prioritised crop wild relative inventory to help underpin global food security.]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (in preparation).</ref>
[[Image:Watering alfalfa field.JPG|thumb|right|Watering an alfalfa field]]
Most of the improvements in alfalfa over the last decades have consisted of better disease resistance on poorly drained soils in wet years, better ability to overwinter in cold climates, and the production of more leaves. Multileaf alfalfa varieties have more than three leaflets per leaf.<ref>[https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/cs/abstracts/28/2/CS0280020263] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317103109/https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/cs/abstracts/28/2/CS0280020263|date=17 March 2018}}, Leaf Morphology, Shoot Growth, and Gas Exchange of Multifoliolate Alfalfa Phenotypes.</ref>

Alfalfa growers or lucerne growers have a suite of varieties or cultivars to choose from in the seed marketplace and base their selection on a number of factors including the dormancy or activity rating, crown height, fit for purpose (i.e., hay production or grazing), disease resistance, insect pest resistance, forage yield, fine leafed varieties and a combination of many favourable attributes. Plant breeding efforts use scientific methodology and technology to strive for new improved varieties.

The [[L. Teweles Seed Company]] claimed it created the world's first hybrid alfalfa.<ref name="Cite C">{{cite news|title=Kent Feeds Buys Seed Firm Here|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1QcqAAAAIBAJ&pg=7348,214737&dq=teweles&hl=en|access-date=4 January 2013|newspaper=The Milwaukee Journal|date=21 July 1972}}{{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[https://web.archive.org/web/20110607041649/http://www.uwex.edu/ces/crops/uwforage/alfalfa.htm Wisconsin] and [http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu California] and many other states publish alfalfa variety trial data. A complete listing of state variety testing data is provided by the North American Alfalfa Improvement Conference [http://www.naaic.org/Resources/yields.html (NAAIC) State Listing], as well as additional detailed alfalfa genetic and variety data published by [http://www.naaic.org NAAIC].

==== Genetic modification====
[[Roundup Ready]] alfalfa (RRA), a [[genetically modified]] variety, was released by Forage Genetics International in 2005. This was developed through the insertion of a gene owned by [[Monsanto Company]] that confers resistance to [[glyphosate]], a broad-spectrum herbicide, also known as [[Roundup (herbicide)|Roundup]]. Although most grassy and broadleaf plants, including ordinary alfalfa, are killed by Roundup, growers can spray fields of Roundup Ready alfalfa with the glyphosate herbicide and kill the weeds without harming the alfalfa crop.

===== Legal issues in the US =====
In 2005, after completing a 28-page [[environmental assessment]]<ref name=NonregGrant>[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/aphisdocs/04_11001p_pea.pdf USDA/APHIS Environmental Assessment]
United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology Regulatory Services, October 2004. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref> the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) granted RRA nonregulated status<ref>[http://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2005/06/27/E5-3323/monsanto-co-and-forage-genetics-international-availability-determination-of-nonregulated-status-for Monsanto Co. and Forage Genetics International; Availability Determination of Nonregulated Status for Alfalfa Genetically Engineered for Tolerance to the Herbicide Glyphosate] Federal Register, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 27 June 2005. Retrieved 12 November 2011</ref> under [[Code of Federal Regulations]] Title 7 Part 340,<ref>Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7: Agriculture [http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/retrieveECFR?gp=1&SID=900d0f56a13e2b84951cc23e36b6d10b&h=Lf=t07.sgm&r=PART&n=7y5.1.1.1.10&ty=HTML Part 340—Introduction of Organisms and Products Altered or Produced Through Genetic Engineering Which Are Plant Pests or Which There Is Reason to Believe Are Plant Pests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222094846/http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/retrieveECFR?gp=1&SID=900d0f56a13e2b84951cc23e36b6d10b&h=Lf=t07.sgm&r=PART&n=7y5.1.1.1.10&ty=HTML |date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> which regulates, among other things, the introduction (importation, interstate movement, or release into the environment) of organisms and products altered or produced through genetic engineering that are plant pests or that there is reason to believe are plant pests. Monsanto had to seek deregulation to conduct field trials of RRA, because the RRA contains a [[Promoter (genetics)|promoter sequence]] derived from the plant pathogen figwort mosaic virus.<ref name=NonregGrant /> The USDA granted the application for deregulation, stating that the RRA with its modifications: "(1) Exhibit no plant pathogenic properties; (2) are no more likely to become weedy than the nontransgenic parental line or other cultivated alfalfa; (3) are unlikely to increase the weediness potential of any other cultivated or wild species with which it can interbreed; (4) will not cause damage to raw or processed agricultural commodities; (5) will not harm threatened or endangered species or organisms that are beneficial to agriculture; and (6) should not reduce the ability to control pests and weeds in alfalfa or other crops."<ref name=NonregGrant /> Monsanto started selling RRA and within two years, more than 300,000 acres were devoted to the plant in the US.<ref name=OrloffPutnam>Steve Orloff and Dan Putnam
[http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/+symposium/2011/files/talks/11WAS-25_Orloff_RRAlfalfa.pdf Roundup Ready Alfalfa—What Have We Learned to Date?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412061504/http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/+symposium/2011/files/talks/11WAS-25_Orloff_RRAlfalfa.pdf |date=12 April 2013 }} Proceedings, 2011 Western Alfalfa & Forage Conference, Las Vegas, NV, 11–13 December 2011</ref>

The granting of deregulation was opposed by many groups, including growers of non-GM alfalfa who were concerned about [[gene flow]] into their crops.<ref name=NonregGrant /> In 2006, the [[Center for Food Safety]], a US non-governmental organization that is a critic of biotech crops, and others, challenged this deregulation in the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of California]].<ref name = SupremeCourt>[https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/09pdf/09-475.pdf Monsanto et al v Geertson Seed Farms et al] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305201932/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/09pdf/09-475.pdf |date=5 March 2022 }}, Supreme Court of the United States, Decision no 09-475, 21 June 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref> Organic growers were concerned that the GM alfalfa could cross-pollinate with their organic alfalfa, making their crops unsalable in countries that ban the growing of GM crops.<ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/food/archive/2010/06/supreme-court-on-modified-foods-who-won/58526/ Supreme Court on Modified Foods: Who Won?], by Barry Estabrook, 'The Atlantic'. 22 June 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2010.</ref> The District Court ruled that the USDA's environmental assessment did not address two issues concerning RRA's effect on the environment,<ref>These two issues were:
1) evaluation of the risk that complete deregulation of RRA would lead to cross-pollination or the transmission of the gene conferring glyphosate tolerance from RRA to conventional alfalfa
2) evaluation of the risk that growing RRA might lead to the development of Roundup-resistant weeds.</ref> and in 2007, required the USDA to complete a much more extensive [[environmental impact statement]] (EIS). Until the EIS was completed, they banned further planting of RRA but allowed land already planted to continue.<ref name=OrloffPutnam /><ref>[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/pdf/Alfalfa_Ruling_20070503.pdf Memorandum and Order Re: Permanent Injunction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303204524/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/pdf/Alfalfa_Ruling_20070503.pdf |date=3 March 2012 }} United States District Court for Northern California, Case No C 06-01075 CR, 3 May 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref> The USDA proposed a partial deregulation of RRA but this was also rejected by the District Court.<ref name = SupremeCourt/> Planting of RRA was halted.

In June 2009, a divided three-judge panel on the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the District Court's decision.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Monsanto and others [[Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms|appealed]] to the [[US Supreme Court]].<ref name="nytimes.com">[https://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/06/21/21greenwire-supreme-court-lifts-ban-on-planting-gm-alfalfa-57894.html Supreme Court Lifts Ban on Planting GM Alfalfa] by Jennifer Koons, NYT, 21 June 2010 (Retrieved 21 June 2010)</ref>

On 21 June 2010, in ''[[Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms]]'', the Supreme Court overturned the District Court decision to ban planting RRA nationwide as there was no evidence of irreparable injury.<ref>[http://www.scotuswiki.com/index.php?title=Monsanto_Company_v._Geertson_Seed_Farms Monsanto Company v. Geertson Seed Farms] at ScotusWiki – Briefs and Documents, etc.</ref> They ruled that the USDA could partially deregulate RRA before an EIS was completed. The Supreme Court did not consider the District Court's ruling disallowing RRA's deregulation and consequently RRA was still a regulated crop waiting for USDA's completion of an EIS.<ref name = SupremeCourt/>

This decision was welcomed by the [[American Farm Bureau Federation]], [[Biotechnology Industry Organization]], [[American Seed Trade Association]], American Soybean Association, National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance, [[National Association of Wheat Growers]], National Cotton Council, and National Potato Council.<ref>Staff (22 June 2010) [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/192547.php Ag Groups Applaud Supreme Court Ruling On Biotech Alfalfa] Medical News Today, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> In July 2010, 75 members of Congress from both political parties sent a letter to Agriculture Secretary [[Tom Vilsack]] asking him to immediately allow limited planting of genetically engineered alfalfa.<ref>Staff (2010) [http://seedworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158:supreme-court-rules-in-favor-of-rr-alfalfa Supreme Court rules in favor of RR alfalfa] Seed World, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.landolakesinc.com/stellent/groups/public/@lolinc/documents/web_content/ecmp2-0126480.pdf Letter by 75 Members of Congress to Vilsack] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219160621/http://www.landolakesinc.com/stellent/groups/public/%40lolinc/documents/web_content/ecmp2-0126480.pdf |date=19 February 2015 }} Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> However the USDA did not issue interim deregulatory measures, instead focusing on completing the EIS. Their 2,300-page EIS, published in December 2010, concluded that RRA would not affect the environment.<ref>[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/downloads/alfalfa/gt_alfalfa%20_feis.pdf Glyphosate-Tolerant Alfalfa Events J101 and J163: Request for Nonregulated Status Final Environmental Impact Statement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301100225/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/downloads/alfalfa/gt_alfalfa%20_feis.pdf|date=1 March 2013}}, United States Department of Agriculture, December 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref>

Three of the biggest natural food brands in the US lobbied for a partial deregulation of RRA,<ref>Staff (24 February 2011) [http://ofbf.org/news-and-events/news/1253/ Deregulation of genetically modified alfalfa stirs debate about 'coexistence'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219160701/http://ofbf.org/news-and-events/news/1253/ |date=19 February 2015 }} Ohio Farm Bureau Federation Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2011</ref> but in January 2011, despite protests from organic groups, Secretary Vilsack announced that the USDA had approved the unrestricted planting of genetically modified alfalfa and planting resumed.<ref>[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/alfalfa_eis.shtml USDA - Roundup Ready® Alfalfa Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924100325/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/alfalfa_eis.shtml |date=24 September 2008 }}, United States Department of Agriculture, December 2010. Retrieved 13 November 2011</ref><ref>Gilla, Carey and Doering, Christopher [https://www.reuters.com/article/gmo-alfalfa-usda-idUSN2727513020110127 UPDATE 3-U.S. farmers get approval to plant GMO alfalfa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924150815/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/01/27/gmo-alfalfa-usda-idUSN2727513020110127 |date=24 September 2015 }} Reuters US Edition, 27 January 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/28/vilsack-usda-gmo-alfalfa-monsanto_n_815513.html Vilsack's USDA Officially Approves Controversial Genetifically Modified Alfalfa]. Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 8 February 2011.</ref> Secretary Vilsack commented, "After conducting a thorough and transparent examination of alfalfa&nbsp;... APHIS [<nowiki/>[[Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service]]] has determined that [RRA] is as safe as traditionally bred alfalfa."<ref>USDA News Release No. 0035.11, 27 January 2011. [http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentidonly=true&contentid=2011/01/0035.xml USDA Announces Decision to Fully Deregulate Roundup Ready Alfalfa] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910020304/http://www.usda.gov//wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentidonly=true&contentid=2011%2F01%2F0035.xml |date=10 September 2015 }}</ref> About {{convert|20|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}} of alfalfa were grown in the US, the fourth-biggest crop by acreage, of which about 1% were organic. Some biotechnology officials forecast that half of the US alfalfa acreage could eventually be planted with GM alfalfa.<ref name = wsj1/>

The [[National Corn Growers Association]],<ref name=NCGA>Staff (20 January 2011) [https://archive.today/20130129022659/http://www.minnesotafarmguide.com/news/opinion/national-corn-growers-assn-supports-deregulation-of-roundup-ready-alfalfa/article_cff8d344-24c8-11e0-87f8-001cc4c03286.html National Corn Growers Assn. supports deregulation of Roundup Ready alfalfa] The Minnesota Farm Guide, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> the [[American Farm Bureau Federation]],<ref>Tannen, Benjamin (14 March 2011) [https://www.law.upenn.edu/blogs/regblog/2011/03/usda-fully-deregulates-genetically-modified-alfalfa.html USDA Fully Deregulates Genetically Modified Alfalfa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107005952/https://www.law.upenn.edu/blogs/regblog/2011/03/usda-fully-deregulates-genetically-modified-alfalfa.html |date=7 November 2012 }} University of Pennsylvania Law School, RegBlog News, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> and the Council for Biotech Information<ref>Staff (27 January 2011) [http://www.biotech-now.org/food-and-agriculture/farmer-gene/2011/01/bio-applauds-usda-decision-to-deregulate-biotech-alfalfa BIO Applauds USDA Decision to Deregulate Biotech Alfalfa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522075734/http://www.biotech-now.org/food-and-agriculture/farmer-gene/2011/01/bio-applauds-usda-decision-to-deregulate-biotech-alfalfa |date=22 May 2013 }} Biotech Now, Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> warmly applauded this decision. Christine Bushway, CEO of the [[Organic Trade Association]], said, "A&nbsp;lot of people are shell-shocked. While we feel Secretary Vilsack worked on this issue, which is progress, this decision puts our organic farmers at risk."<ref name = wsj1>Tomson, Bill and Kilman, Scott [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703399204576108601430251740 USDA Won't Impose Restrictions on Biotech Alfalfa Crop] Wall Street Journal, 27 January 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011</ref> The Organic Trade Association issued a press release in 2011 saying that the USDA recognized the impact that cross-contamination could have on organic alfalfa and urged them to place restrictions to minimize any such contamination.<ref>[http://www.organicnewsroom.com/2011/01/organic_industry_wants_farmers_1.html Organic Trade Association's Organic Newsroom: Organic industry wants farmers protected in the marketplace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720220824/http://www.organicnewsroom.com/2011/01/organic_industry_wants_farmers_1.html |date=20 July 2012 }}. Organicnewsroom.com (20 January 2011). Retrieved on 8 February 2011.</ref> However, organic farming groups, organic food outlets, and activists responded by publishing an [[open letter]] saying that planting the "alfalfa without any restrictions flies in the face of the interests of conventional and organic farmers, preservation of the environment, and consumer choice".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unfi.com/OpenLetter_GEAlfalfa.aspx |title=We Stand United in Opposition to GE Alfalfa |date=31 January 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302133913/http://www.unfi.com/OpenLetter_GEAlfalfa.aspx |archive-date=2 March 2011}}</ref> In addition to [[House Agriculture Committee]] Chairman [[Frank Lucas (Oklahoma)|Frank Lucas]], Senator [[Debbie Stabenow]] (Chairwoman of the [[Senate Agriculture Committee]]) and Senator [[Richard Lugar]] strongly supported the decision, respectively stating that it would give growers "the green light to begin planting an abundant, affordable and safe crop"<ref name="Stabenow">Staff (January 2011) [http://www.agri-pulse.com/Stabenow_Welcomes_USDA_Alfalfa_Decision_20110127H.asp Senate Ag's Stabenow, House Ag's Lucas welcome biotech alfalfa deregulation] Agri-Pulse Communications Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> and give farmers and consumers the "choice&nbsp;... in planting or purchasing food grown with GM technology, conventionally, or organically".<ref>Harsch, John H. (27 January 2011) [http://www.agri-pulse.com/Lugar_Supports_GE_Alfalfa_Decision_20110127H.asp Sen. Lugar strongly supports GE alfalfa deregulation, to avoid 'government control'] Agri-Pulse Communications Inc., Retrieved 1 November 2012</ref> In a joint statement, US Senator [[Patrick Leahy]] and Representative [[Peter DeFazio]] said the USDA had the "opportunity to address the concerns of all farmers", but instead "surrender[ed] to business as usual for the biotech industry".<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 27, 2011 |title=USDA's Decision Thursday On Genetically Engineered Alfalfa – Leahy And DeFazio Warn About USDA Decision Lifting All Protections For Organic And Conventional Farmers |url=http://www.leahy.senate.gov/press/press_releases/release/?id=61836a8b-018c-43f6-82c1-04b3016e27d6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503122459/http://www.leahy.senate.gov/press/press_releases/release/?id=61836a8b-018c-43f6-82c1-04b3016e27d6 |archive-date=2012-05-03 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Patrick Leahy}}</ref>

In March 2011, the non-profit Center for Food Safety appealed the deregulation decision,<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/maria-rodale/we-stand-united-in-opposi_b_816637.html Maria Rodale: We Stand in Opposition to GE Alfalfa]. Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 8 February 2011.</ref> which the District Court for Northern California rejected in 2012.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/blr.2012.9900 | doi=10.1089/blr.2012.9900 | title=Nigeria Passes Law Allowing Genetically Modified Plants | journal=Biotechnology Law Report | date=2012 | volume=31 | issue=2 | page=153 }}</ref>