Editing Alexander the Great (section)

==Conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire==
{{Main|Wars of Alexander the Great|Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia}}

===Strategy===
{{Main|Military tactics of Alexander the Great#Grand strategy}}
Alexander's invasion of Persia as a whole has been denoted as a supreme example of a "strategic line" of conducting war, a line formed  by "the chain of logic that connects operations into a single whole." In his book ''Strategy'', Soviet military officer and theorist [[Alexander Svechin]] delineates Alexander's strategic steps. After securing his Greek base and the Balkans by subjugating his political opponents, and securing his army's rear through the conquest of all the Afro-Asian coastline, where the Persian fleet was based and from which it was supplied, Alexander, moved to confront directly the Persians. He thus resolved the eternal problem of an army conducting operations deep into enemy territory, Svechin states, in an "exemplary manner."<ref name=svechin>{{cite book |last= Svechin|first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Svechin|date=1991|orig-date=1927|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Kent D.|title=Strategy|publisher=East View Information Services|page=263 |chapter=Combining Operations for Achieving the ultimate Goal of the War|isbn=1-879944-33-2}}</ref>

===Asia Minor===
{{Further|Battle of the Granicus|Siege of Halicarnassus|Siege of Miletus}}

[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of Alexander's empire and his route]]
{{Campaigns of Alexander the Great}}
{{OSM Location map
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| label1 = Pella
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| mark-title1 = Birthplace July 356 BC
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| label2 = Granicus
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| mark-title2 = [[Battle of the Granicus]] May, 334 BC
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| label3 = Miletus
| mark-coord3 = {{coord|37.53|27.28}}
| mark-title3 = [[Siege of Miletus]] 334 BC<br>[[Siege of Halicarnassus]] 334 BC
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| label4 = Issus
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| mark-title4 = [[Battle of Issus]] 334 BC
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| label5 = Tyre
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| mark-title5 = [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)]] January–July 332 BC
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| label6 = Gaza
| mark-coord6 = {{coord|31.52|34.45}}
| mark-title6 = [[Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)|Siege of Gaza]] October 332 BC
| mark-description6 = [[Gaza City]]
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| label7 = Alexandria
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| label9 = Uxians
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| mark-title9 = [[Battle of the Uxian Defile]] December 331 BC
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| mark-title11 = [[Siege of Cyropolis]] 329 BC<br>[[Battle of Jaxartes]] October 329 BC<br>[[Siege of the Sogdian Rock]] 327 BC
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| label12 = Cophen
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| mark-title12 = [[Cophen campaign]] May 327 BC – March 326 BC
| mark-description12 = [[Kabul River]]
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| label13 = Hydaspes
| mark-coord13 = {{coord|32.83|73.64}}
| mark-title13 = [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] May 326 BC
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| label14 = Malavas
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| mark-title14 = [[Mallian campaign]] November 326 – February 325 BC
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| label15 = Babylon
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| mark-title15 = [[Death of Alexander the Great]] 10 or 11 June 323 BC
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After his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)]], [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] began the work of establishing himself as ''hēgemṓn'' ({{langx|el|ἡγεμών}}) of a league which according to [[Diodorus]] was to wage a campaign against the Persians for the sundry grievances Greece suffered in [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|480]] and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. In 336 he sent [[Parmenion]], [[Amyntas (son of Andromenes)|Amyntas]], Andromenes, Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into [[Anatolia]] to make preparations for an invasion.<ref name="PB">{{cite book |last1=Briant |first1=Pierre |title=From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire |date=2002 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-120-7 |page=817 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&pg=PA817|access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref><ref name="WH">{{cite book |last1=Heckel |first1=Waldemar |title=Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5469-7 |page=205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NR4Wn9VU8vkC&pg=PT205|access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref> The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near [[Magnesia on the Meander|Magnesia]] by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary [[Memnon of Rhodes]].<ref name="PB"/><ref name="WH"/>

Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the [[Hellespont]] in 334&nbsp;BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry, and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=192}} drawn from Macedon and various Greek city states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from [[Thrace]], [[Paionia]], and [[Illyria]].<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 11}}</ref>{{Cref2|i}} He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=192}}

After an initial victory against Persian forces at the [[Battle of the Granicus]], Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of [[Sardis]]; he then proceeded along the [[Ionia]]n coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. [[Miletus]], held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at [[Halicarnassus]], in [[Caria]], Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale [[siege]], eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain [[Memnon of Rhodes]] and the Persian [[satrap]] of Caria, [[Orontobates]], to withdraw by sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 20–23}}</ref> Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who adopted Alexander.<ref name="Arrian 1976 loc=I, 23">{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 23}}</ref>
[[File:Alexander cuts the Gordian Knot.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Alexander Cuts the [[Gordian Knot]]'' by [[Jean-Simon Berthélemy]] (1767)]]
From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous [[Lycia]] and the [[Pamphylia]]n plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards, the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At [[Termessos]], Alexander humbled and did not storm the [[Pisidia]]n city.<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 27–28}}</ref> At the ancient Phrygian capital of [[Gordium]], Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable [[Gordian Knot]], a feat said to await the future "king of [[Asia Minor|Asia]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 3}}</ref> According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and hacked it apart with his sword.<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2007|p=351}}</ref>

===The Levant and Syria===
{{Further|Battle of Issus|Siege of Tyre (332 BC)}}

In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the [[Taurus Mountains|Taurus]] into [[Cilicia]]. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at [[Issus (Cilicia)|Issus]]. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother [[Sisygambis]], and a fabulous treasure.<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 11–12}}</ref> He offered a [[peace treaty]] that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 [[Attic talent|talents]] for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46976/46976-h/46976-h.htm|title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of Anabasis of Alexander, by Arrian.|via=Project Gutenberg|access-date=11 January 2018|archive-date=26 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326221313/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46976/46976-h/46976-h.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Alexander proceeded to take possession of [[Ancient Syria|Syria]], and most of the coast of the [[Levant]].<ref name="Arrian 1976 loc=I, 23" /> In the following year, 332&nbsp;BC, he was forced to attack [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], which he captured after a long and difficult [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|siege]].<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=II, 16–24}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gunther|2007|p=84}}</ref> The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into [[slavery]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sabin|van Wees|Whitby|2007|p=396}}</ref>

===Egypt===
{{Further|Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)}}
[[File:Name of Alexander the Great in Hieroglyphs circa 330 BCE.jpg|thumb|Name of Alexander in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] (written from right to left), {{circa|332&nbsp;BC}}, Egypt. [[Louvre Museum]].]]

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to [[Egypt]] quickly capitulated. However, Alexander was met with resistance at [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt".<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=II, 26}}</ref> After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword, and the women and children were sold into slavery.<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=II, 26–27}}</ref>

Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. It appears that the Egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner – nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Strudwick|first=Helen|title=The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt|publisher=Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4351-4654-9|location=New York|pages=96–97}}</ref> Alexander restored the temples neglected by the Persians and dedicated new monuments to the Egyptian gods. In the temple of Luxor, near Karnak, he built a chapel for the sacred barge. During his brief months in Egypt, he reformed the taxation system on the Greek models and organized the military occupation of the country, but in early 331 BC he left for Asia in pursuit of the Persians.<ref name=":0" />

Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC where he was regarded as a liberator.<ref>{{harvnb|Ring|Salkin|Berney|Schellinger|1994|pp=49, 320}}</ref> To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the [[Siwa Oasis]] in the [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] desert,<ref name=":0" /> at which he was pronounced the son of the deity [[Amun]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1988|pp=71–74}} Henceforth, Alexander often referred to [[Zeus-Ammon]] as his true father, and after his death, [[Horns of Alexander|currency depicted him adorned with horns]], using the [[Horns of Ammon]] as a symbol of his divinity.<ref>{{harvnb|Dahmen|2007|pp=10–11}}</ref> The Greeks interpreted this message – one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs – as a prophecy.<ref name=":0" />

During his stay in Egypt, he founded [[Alexandria]], which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] after his death.<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=III, 1}}</ref> Control of Egypt passed to Ptolemy I (son of Lagos), the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (305–30 BC) after the death of Alexander.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=616}}

===Assyria and Babylonia===
{{Further|Battle of Gaugamela}}
[[File:Charles Le Brun - Entry of Alexander into Babylon.JPG|thumb|''Entry of Alexander into Babylon'' by [[Charles Le Brun]] (1665)|upright=1]]
Leaving Egypt in 331&nbsp;BC, Alexander marched eastward into [[Achaemenid Assyria]] in [[Upper Mesopotamia]] (now northern [[Iraq]]) and defeated Darius again at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]].<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=III 7–15}}; also in a [https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html contemporary Babylonian account of the battle of Gaugamela] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224083355/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t40.html |date=24 February 2017 }}</ref> Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as [[Erbil|Arbela]]. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanson |first=Victor Davis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C |title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power |year= 2007 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-42518-8|access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref> Darius fled over the mountains to [[Ecbatana]] (modern [[Hamadan]]) while Alexander captured [[Babylon]].<ref name="AIII16" />

[[Babylonian astronomical diaries]] say that "the king of the world, Alexander" sent his scouts with a message to the people of Babylon before entering the city: "I shall not enter your houses".<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/| title = a contemporary account of the battle of Gaugamela| access-date = 16 July 2021| archive-date = 12 August 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210812155458/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-battle-of-gaugamela/| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Persia===
{{Further|Battle of the Persian Gate}}
[[File:2persian gate wall.JPG|thumb|Site of the [[Persian Gates|Persian Gate]] in modern-day [[Iran]]; the road was built in the 1990s.]]

From Babylon, Alexander went to [[Susa]], one of the [[Achaemenid]] capitals, and captured its treasury.<ref name="AIII16" /> He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of [[Persepolis]] via the Persian [[Royal Road]]. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the [[Persian Gates]] (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]) which had been blocked by a Persian army under [[Ariobarzanes (satrap of Persis)|Ariobarzanes]] and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=III, 18}}</ref>

On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days.<ref>{{harvnb|Foreman|2004|page=152}}</ref> Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months.{{sfn|Morkot|1996|p=121}} During his stay, a fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes I]] and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the [[Acropolis of Athens]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Second Persian War]] by Xerxes;{{sfn|Hammond|1983|pp=72–73}} Plutarch and [[Diodorus]] allege that Alexander's companion, the [[hetaera]] [[Thaïs]], instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision.{{Sfn |Yenne|2010 | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&pg=PA99 99]}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=Philip |title=Alexander the Great |date=2011 |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperbacks |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4391-9328-0 |page=213 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v550aeZcGowC&pg=PA213 |access-date=21 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Briant |first1=Pierre |title=Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction |date=2010 |orig-year=1974 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-0-691-15445-9 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6wl0xMQCW40C&pg=PA109 |access-date=21 November 2017}}</ref> [[Plutarch]] claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires{{Sfn |Yenne|2010 | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&pg=PA99 99]}} but the flames had already spread to most of the city.{{Sfn |Yenne|2010 | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&pg=PA99 99]}} [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]] claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.{{Sfn |Yenne|2010 | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=kngnd0GlUc4C&pg=PA99 99]}} Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:

{{blockquote|Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?<ref>{{cite book |title=Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy: A Biography |first=John Maxwell |last=O'Brien |publisher=Psychology Press |date=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatin00obri_0/page/104 104] |isbn=978-0-415-10617-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatin00obri_0/page/104}}</ref>}}

===Fall of the Persian Empire and the East===
[[File:Khalili Collection Aramaic Documents manuscript Bactria.jpg|thumb|Administrative document from [[Bactria]] dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, [[Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Long List of Supplies Disbursed|url=https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/aramaic-documents/khalili-collection-aramaic-documents-a-long-list-of-supplies-disbursed-ia17/|access-date=6 January 2021|website=Khalili Collections|archive-date=15 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815095632/https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/aramaic-documents/khalili-collection-aramaic-documents-a-long-list-of-supplies-disbursed-ia17/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia.{{Sfn |Arrian|1976|loc= III, 19–20}} The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by [[Bessus]], his [[Bactria]]n satrap and kinsman.{{Sfn |Arrian|1976| loc= III, 21}} As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius's successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a [[guerrilla]] campaign against Alexander.{{Sfn |Arrian|1976|loc=III, 21, 25}} Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral.{{Sfn | Arrian| 1976 | loc = III, 22}} He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.{{sfn|Gergel|2004|p=81}} The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander10.html |title=The end of Persia |publisher=Livius |access-date=16 November 2009 |archive-date=16 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316211044/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander10.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by Alexander under his own rule, he, in the words of the [[Iranologist]] [[Pierre Briant]] "may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the ''last of the Achaemenids''."{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}}

Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern [[Kandahar]] in Afghanistan, and [[Alexandria Eschate]] ("The Furthest") in modern [[Tajikistan]]. The campaign took Alexander through [[Media (region)|Media]], [[Parthia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]] (West Afghanistan), [[Drangiana]], [[Arachosia]] (South and Central Afghanistan), [[Bactria]] (North and Central Afghanistan), and [[Scythia]].{{Sfn |Arrian|1976|loc=III, 23–25, 27–30; IV, 1–7}}

In 329 BC, [[Spitamenes]], who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed.{{Sfn |Arrian|1976|loc= III, 30}} However, at some point later when Alexander was on the [[Jaxartes]] dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the [[Battle of Jaxartes]] and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.{{Sfn |Arrian|1976|loc = IV, 5–6, 16–17}}

===Problems and plots===
 [[File:The killing of Cleitus by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899) reduced.jpg|thumb|''The Killing of [[Cleitus the Black|Cleitus]]'', by [[André Castaigne]] (1898–1899)]]

During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of ''[[proskynesis]]'', either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors.<ref name="AVII11" /> This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the Iranian upper classes.{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} The Greeks however regarded the gesture of ''proskynesis'' as the province of [[deities]] and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.{{sfn|Morkot|1996|p=111}}

During the long rule of the Achaemenids, the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government, the army, and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]] and to a major degree, [[Persians|Persian]] noblemen.{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} The latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal Achaemenid family.{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} This created a problem for Alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time.{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} [[Pierre Briant]] explains that Alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in Asia Minor, Babylonia or Egypt; he also had to (re)create a central government with or without the support of the Iranians.{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} As early as 334 BC he demonstrated awareness of this, when he challenged incumbent King Darius III "by appropriating the main elements of the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology, particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants".{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III, wherein he argued that he was worthier than Darius "to succeed to the Achaemenid throne".{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} However, Alexander's eventual decision to burn the Achaemenid palace at [[Persepolis]] in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the "entire Persian people" made it impracticable for him to pose himself as Darius' legitimate successor.{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}} Against Bessus (Artaxerxes V) however, Briant adds, Alexander reasserted "his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of Darius III".{{sfn|Briant|1985|pages=827–830}}

A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, [[Philotas]], was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus [[Parmenion]], who had been charged with guarding the treasury at [[Ecbatana]], was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, [[Cleitus the Black]], during a violent drunken altercation at [[Maracanda]] (modern day [[Samarkand]] in [[Uzbekistan]]), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and especially of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.{{sfn|Gergel|2004|p=99}}

Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed. This one was instigated by his own royal [[page (servant)|pages]]. His official historian, [[Callisthenes]] of [[Olynthus]], was implicated in the plot, and in the ''[[Anabasis of Alexander]]'', [[Arrian]] states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the [[rack (torture)|rack]] as punishment, and likely died soon after.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/cu31924026460752|title=The Anabasis of Alexander; or, The history of the wars and conquests of Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian|date=18 January 1884|publisher=London, Hodder and Stoughton|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.<ref>{{harvnb|Heckel|Tritle|2009|pp=47–48}}</ref>

===Macedon in Alexander's absence===
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general [[Antipater]], an experienced military and political leader, and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon.<ref name="Roisman 2010 199" /> Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence.<ref name="Roisman 2010 199" /> The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king [[Agis III]] in 331&nbsp;BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the [[battle of Megalopolis]].<ref name="Roisman 2010 199" /> Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=201}}</ref> There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=202}}</ref>

In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=203}}</ref> Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=205}}</ref> However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168 BC).{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=186}}

=== Coinage ===
[[File:KINGS of MACEDON Alexander III the Great 336-323 BC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Silver [[tetradrachm]] of Alexander the Great struck by [[Balakros]] or his successor [[Menes of Pella|Menes]], both former ''[[somatophylakes]]'' (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of [[satrap]] of [[Cilicia]] in the lifetime of Alexander, {{circa|333–327&nbsp;BC}}. The obverse shows [[Heracles]], ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated [[Zeus]] Aëtophoros.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=368240|title= eAuction 430. KINGS of MACEDON. Alexander III 'the Great'. 336–323 BC. AR Tetradrachm (25mm, 17.15 g, 1h). Tarsos mint. Struck under Balakros or Menes, circa 333–327 BC.|website=CNG |access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=18 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218081840/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=368240|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The conquest by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] of [[Pangaeum]], and then of the island of [[Thasos]] between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control.<ref>[[Arrian]], Anabasis VII, 3</ref>

Alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in [[Cilicia]] in [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, which went on to become the main coinage of the empire.<ref name="LE RIDER 2003, p153-214">G. LE RIDER, Alexandre le Grand : Monnaie, finances et politique, Chapitre V, "Histoire", PUF, 2003, p153-214</ref> Alexander minted gold [[stater]]s, silver [[tetradrachm]]s and [[Ancient drachma|drachim]]s, and various fractional [[Ancient Greek coinage|bronze coins]]. The types of these coins remained constant in his empire.<!-- But this is incorrect, because the minting of Philippeioi continued throughout Alexander's reign – see Le Rider.--> The gold series had the head of [[Athena]] on the obverse and a winged [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] ([[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]]) on the reverse.<ref>REBUFFAT Françoise, La monnaie dans l'Antiquité, Picard, 1996 .p204</ref> The silver coinage had a beardless head of [[Heracles]] wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and Zeus aetophoros ('eagle bearer') enthroned with a scepter in his left hand, on the reverse.<ref>Gerin, Dominique; Grandjean, Catherine; Amandry, Michel; De Callatay.  ''La monnaie grecque'', "L'Antiquité : une histoire", Ellipse, 2001. pp. 117–119.</ref> There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. Heracles and [[Zeus]] were important deities for the Macedonians, with Heracles considered to be the ancestor of the Temenid dynasty and Zeus the patron of the main Macedonian sanctuary, [[Dium]].<ref name="LE RIDER 2003, p153-214"/> The lion was also the symbolic animal of the Anatolian god [[Sandas]], worshipped at [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]].<ref name="LE RIDER 2003, p153-214"/> The reverse design of Alexander's tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god [[Baaltars]] (Baal of Tarsus), on the silver staters minted at Tarsus by the Persian satrap [[Mazaeus]] before Alexander's conquest.<ref name="LE RIDER 2003, p153-214"/>

Alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests. Persian coins continued to circulate in all the [[satrap]]ies of the empire.<ref>BRIANT Pierre, Alexandre Le Grand, "Que sais-je ?", PUF, 2011.</ref>