Editing Albert Einstein (section)

=== Emigration to the US (1933) ===
[[File:Einstein-cartoon1.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his "Pacifism" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled "World Peace". He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled "Preparedness".|Cartoon of Einstein after shedding his "pacifism" wings ([[Charles R. Macauley]], {{circa|1933}})]]
In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] under Germany's new chancellor, [[Adolf Hitler]].{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|p=659}}{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p= 404}}

While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the [[Gestapo]] repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Albert Einstein Quits Germany, Renounces Citizenship|url=https://newspapers.ushmm.org/events/albert-einstein-quits-germany-renounces-citizenship|access-date=14 March 2021|website=History Unfolded: US Newspapers and the Holocaust|language=en|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417085304/https://newspapers.ushmm.org/events/albert-einstein-quits-germany-renounces-citizenship|url-status=live}}</ref> He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the [[Enabling Act of 1933|Enabling Act]] on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a ''de facto'' legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in [[Antwerp]], Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship.{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=407–410}} The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a [[Hitler Youth]] camp.<ref name="el4GB"/>

==== Refugee status ====
[[File:Einstein's landing card (5706142737).jpg|thumb|Landing card for Einstein's 26 May 1933 arrival in [[Dover]], England from [[Ostend]], Belgium,<ref name="robinson19"/> enroute to [[Oxford]]<ref name="robinson24">{{cite book| first=Andrew | last=Robinson | author-link=W. Andrew Robinson | title=Einstein in Oxford | date=2024 | publisher=[[Bodleian Library Publishing]] | isbn=978-1-85124-638-0 }}</ref>]]
In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service|laws barring Jews from holding any official positions]], including teaching at universities.{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=407–410}} Historian [[Gerald Holton]] describes how, with {{qi|virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues}}, thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.{{sfnp|Holton|1984|p=}}

A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the [[German Student Union]] in the [[Nazi book burnings]], with Nazi propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=407–410}}<ref name="Jerome" /> In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend [[Max Born]], who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, {{qi|...{{nbs}}I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.}}{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=407–410}} After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a {{qi|spontaneous emotional outburst}} by those who {{qi|shun popular enlightenment}}, and {{qi|more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence}}.<ref>Einstein (1954), p. 197.</ref>

Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the [[Academic Assistance Council]], founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician [[William Beveridge]] to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany.<ref name="Albert Hall">{{cite web |url=https://www.royalalberthall.com/about-the-hall/news/2013/october/3-october-1933-albert-einstein-speaks-at-the-hall/ |title=3 October 1933 – Albert Einstein presents his final speech given in Europe, at the Royal Albert Hall |last=Keyte |first=Suzanne |date=9 October 2013 |website=Royal Albert Hall |access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref> He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander [[Oliver Locker-Lampson]], who had become friends with him in the preceding years.<ref name="robinson19">{{cite book| first=Andrew | last=Robinson | author-link=W. Andrew Robinson | title=[[Einstein on the Run]] | publisher=[[Yale University Press]] | isbn=978-0-300-23476-3 | date=2019 }}</ref> Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his [[Cromer]] home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of [[Roughton, Norfolk]]. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the ''Daily Herald'' on 24 July 1933.{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=422}}{{Rp| }}<ref name="3zIp7"/>

[[File:Churchill and Einstein in 1933.jpg|thumb|[[Winston Churchill]] and Einstein at [[Chartwell]] House, 31 May 1933]]
Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet [[Winston Churchill]] at his home, and later, [[Austen Chamberlain]] and former Prime Minister [[Lloyd George]].{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p= 419–420}} Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend physicist [[Frederick Lindemann]] to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.<ref name="Gilbert" /> Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put [[Allies of World War II|the Allies]]' technology ahead of theirs.<ref name="Gilbert"/>

Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, [[İsmet İnönü]], to whom he wrote in September 1933, requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals".<ref name="aDu8s"/>

Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}} In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere.<ref name="AP" /> In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK.<ref group=note name="gnriE" /><ref name="Guardian" /> Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], US, to become a resident scholar.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}

==== Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study ====
[[File:Einstein-formal portrait-35 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Einstein taken in 1935 at [[Princeton University|Princeton]]]]
On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in London, with ''[[The Times]]'' reporting he was wildly cheered throughout.<ref name="Albert Hall"/> Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]],{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=649, 678}} noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="Arntzenius2011"/> At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their [[Jewish quota]]s, which lasted until the late 1940s.<ref name="Arntzenius2011"/>

Einstein was still undecided about his future. He had offers from several European universities, including [[Christ Church, Oxford]], where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933<ref name="robinson24"/> and was offered a five-year research [[fellowship]] (called a "[[studentship]]" at Christ Church),<ref name="FFt5E"/><ref name="v8v06"/> but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.{{Sfnp|Clark|1971}}{{Sfnp|Fölsing|1997|pp=686–687}}

Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.<ref name="mzNc5"/> He was one of the four first selected (along with [[John von Neumann]], [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Hermann Weyl]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Weyl |first1=Hermann |editor1-last=Pesic |editor1-first=Peter |title=Levels of Infinity: Selected Writings on Mathematics and Philosophy |date=2013 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=9780486266930 |page=5 |url={{GBurl|id=Dd-vAAAAQBAJ}} |access-date=30 May 2022 |quote=By 1933, Weyl... left for the newly-founded Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton, where his colleagues included Einstein, Kurt Gödel, and John von Neumann.}}</ref>) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. [[Bruria Kaufman]], his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a [[unified field theory]] and to refute the [[Copenhagen interpretation|accepted interpretation]] of [[quantum physics]], both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. The [[Albert Einstein House]] was made a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1976.

==== World War II and the Manhattan Project ====
{{See also|Einstein–Szilárd letter}}
[[File:Einstein-Roosevelt-letter.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Facsimile of the [[Einstein–Szilard letter]]]]
In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist [[Leó Szilárd]] attempted to alert [[Washington, D.C.]] to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as [[Edward Teller]] and [[Eugene Wigner]], {{qi|regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the [[German nuclear energy project|race to build an atomic bomb]], and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.}}{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=630}}<ref name="o4fkQ"/> To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered.<ref name="pRqWK"/> He was asked to lend his support by writing [[Einstein–Szilard letter|a letter]], with Szilárd, to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.

The letter is believed to be {{qi|arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II}}.<ref name="4Z68g"/> In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the [[Belgian royal family]]<ref name="eZym8"/> and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the [[Manhattan Project]].

For Einstein, {{qi|war was a disease{{nbs}}... [and] he called for resistance to war.}} By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles.<ref name="z73PK"/> In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, [[Linus Pauling]], {{qi|I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them{{nbs}}...}}{{Sfnp|Clark|1971|p=752}} In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]], signed [[Russell–Einstein Manifesto|a manifesto]] highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Einstein |first1=Albert |url=https://pugwash.org/1955/07/09/statement-manifesto/ |title=The Russell-Einstein Manifesto |last2=Russell |first2=Bertrand |date=9 July 1955 |publisher=Pugwash Conferences |location=London |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301114337/https://pugwash.org/1955/07/09/statement-manifesto/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of the [[World Academy of Art and Science]] (WAAS),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyko |first1=Hugo |title=Science and the Future of Mankind |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=377 |url=https://www.worldacademy.org/files/publications/Science%20and%20the%20Future%20of%20Mankind.pdf}}</ref> an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons.

==== US citizenship ====
[[File:Citizen-Einstein.jpg|thumb|Einstein accepting a [[Citizenship of the United States|US citizenship]] certificate from judge [[Phillip Forman]] in 1940]]
Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the [[meritocracy]] in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education.{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=432}}

Einstein joined the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the [[Civil rights movement (1896–1954)|civil rights]] of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease",<ref name="Jerome" /><ref name="smithsonianmag">{{cite news |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356 |title=How Albert Einstein Used His Fame to Denounce American Racism |first=Matthew |last=Francis |date=3 March 2017 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=11 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211150143/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-celebrity-scientist-albert-einstein-used-fame-denounce-american-racism-180962356/ |url-status=live }}</ref> seeing it as {{qi|handed down from one generation to the next}}.{{Sfnp|Calaprice|2005|pp=148–149}} As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951.{{sfnp|Robeson|2002|p=565}} When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.<ref name="civil"/> 

In 1946, Einstein visited [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]] in Pennsylvania, a [[historically black college]], where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include [[Langston Hughes]] and [[Thurgood Marshall]]. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, {{qi|I do not intend to be quiet about it.}}<ref name="Jerome_Isis"/> A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.<ref name="civil"/> Einstein has said, {{qi|Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination}}.<ref name="smithsonianmag"/> Isaacson writes that "When [[Marian Anderson]], the black contralto, came to Princeton for a concert in 1937, the Nassau Inn refused her a room. So Einstein invited her to stay at his house on Main Street, in what was a deeply personal as well as symbolic gesture ... Whenever she returned to Princeton, she stayed with Einstein, her last visit coming just two months before he died."{{sfnp|Isaacson|2007|p=445}}