Editing Age of Enlightenment (section)

==National variations==
[[File:Europe, 1700 - 1714.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Europe at the beginning of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], 1700]]

The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries and influenced nations globally, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches.<ref>David N. Livingstone and Charles W.J. Withers, ''Geography and Enlightenment'' (1999)</ref> Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the ''philosophes'' fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

A common theme among most countries which derived Enlightenment ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of Enlightenment philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by Enlightenment philosophy, "France's revolutionary government had denounced slavery, but the property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts."<ref name="ReferenceD">''A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present,'' Second Edition, by [[Teresa A. Meade]]</ref> Slavery frequently showed the limitations of the Enlightenment ideology as it pertained to European colonialism, since many colonies of Europe operated on a [[plantation economy]] fueled by slave labor. In 1791, the [[Haitian Revolution]], a [[slave rebellion]] by emancipated slaves against [[French colonial empire|French colonial rule]] in the colony of [[Saint-Domingue]], broke out. European nations and the United States, despite the strong support for Enlightenment ideals, refused to "[give support] to Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle."<ref name="ReferenceD" />

===Great Britain===
====England====
{{Further|Georgian era#English Enlightenment}}

The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as [[Joseph Addison]], [[Edward Gibbon]], John Locke, Isaac Newton, [[Alexander Pope]], [[Joshua Reynolds]], and [[Jonathan Swift]].<ref>Peter Gay, ed. ''The Enlightenment: A comprehensive anthology'' (1973) p. 14</ref> [[Freethought#United Kingdom|Freethinking]], a term describing those who stood in opposition to the institution of the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible, can be said to have begun in England no later than 1713, when [[Anthony Collins (philosopher)|Anthony Collins]] wrote his "Discourse of Free-thinking," which gained substantial popularity. This essay attacked the clergy of all churches and was a plea for deism.

[[Roy Porter]] argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order.<ref>Roy Porter, "England" in Alan Charles Kors, ed., ''Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment'' (2003) 1:409–15.</ref> Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim thinkers to equal [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], Voltaire, or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Gibbon,<ref>Karen O'Brien, "English Enlightenment Histories, 1750–c.1815" in {{cite book |editor=José Rabasa |title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcVZeiGg4awC&pg=PA518 |year=2012 |location=Oxford, England |publisher=OUP |pages=518–535 |isbn=978-0-19-921917-9}}</ref> [[Edmund Burke]] and [[Samuel Johnson]] were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded such that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration, positions which intellectuals on the continent had to fight against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.<ref>Roy Porter, ''The creation of the modern world: the untold story of the British Enlightenment'' (2000), pp. 1–12, 482–484.</ref>

According to [[Derek Hirst]], the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established [[English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries|coffee houses]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hirst |first=Derek |date=1996 |title=Locating the 1650s in England's Seventeenth Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24423269 |journal=History |volume=81 |issue=263 |pages=359–383 |doi=10.1111/1468-229X.00016 |jstor=24423269 |issn=0018-2648}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Enlightenment (1650–1800): The English Enlightenment |url=https://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/enlightenment/section2/ |access-date=18 December 2023 |website=SparkNotes |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:AdamSmith.jpg|thumb|left|upright|One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was [[Adam Smith]], the father of modern economic science.]]

====Scotland====
In the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], the principles of sociability, equality, and utility were disseminated in schools and universities, many of which used sophisticated teaching methods which blended philosophy with daily life.<ref name="Eddy2022" /> Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as schools, universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Towsey |first1=Mark |title=Reading the Scottish Enlightenment Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750–1820 |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-19351-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_uB5DwAAQBAJ}}</ref> The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal [[Calvinism|Calvinist]], Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment."<ref name="HermanTwo">A. Herman, ''How the Scots Invented the Modern World'' (Crown Publishing Group, 2001).</ref> In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization."<ref>{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Lawrence E. |title=Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rbqn4RfUMioC&pg=PA92 |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=92 |isbn=978-1-4422-1964-9}}</ref> The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of [[William Cullen]], physician and chemist; [[James Anderson of Hermiston|James Anderson]], [[agronomist]]; [[Joseph Black]], physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.<ref name="Denby"/><ref name="Repcheck">J. Repcheck, ''The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity'' (Basic Books, 2003), pp. 117–143.</ref>

====Anglo-American colonies====
{{Further|American Enlightenment}}

[[File:Declaration of Independence (1819), by John Trumbull.jpg|thumb|[[John Trumbull]]'s ''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'' imagines the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress.]]

Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers.<ref>Henry F. May, ''The Enlightenment in America'' (1978)</ref> Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics.<ref>Michael Atiyah, "Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment," ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' (Dec 2006) 150#4 pp.&nbsp;591–606.</ref><ref>Jack Fruchtman, Jr., ''Atlantic Cousins: Benjamin Franklin and His Visionary Friends'' (2007)</ref> The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom.<ref>Charles C. Mann, ''1491'' (2005)</ref> The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu.<ref>Paul M. Spurlin, ''Montesquieu in America, 1760–1801'' (1941)</ref> As deists, they were influenced by ideas of [[John Toland]] and [[Matthew Tindal]]. There was a great emphasis upon [[liberalism in the United States|liberty]], [[republicanism in the United States|republicanism]], and [[freedom of religion in the United States|religious tolerance]]. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles, and biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in ''[[The Age of Reason]]'' and Thomas Jefferson in his short ''Jefferson Bible,'' from which he removed all supernatural aspects.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1272214/The-Founding-Fathers-Deism-and-Christianity |title=The Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

===German states===
{{Further|History of Germany#Enlightenment|Hymnody of continental Europe#Rationalism}}

Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states.<ref>Charles W. Ingrao, "A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg." ''German History'' 20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286.</ref> The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural, and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.<ref>Katrin Keller, "Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism." ''German History'' 20.3 (2002): 309–331.</ref><ref>"The German Enlightenment," ''German History'' (Dec 2017) 35#4 pp. 588–602, round table discussion of historiography.</ref>

[[File:Oer-Weimarer Musenhof.jpg|thumb|left|''Weimar's Courtyard of the Muses'' by [[Theobald von Oer]], a tribute to The Enlightenment and the [[Weimar Classicism]] depicting German poets [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], [[Christoph Martin Wieland|Wieland]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]]]

Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural, and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the ''Aufklärung'' (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. Christian Wolff was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.<ref>{{cite book |first=John G. |last=Gagliardo |title=Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 |year=1991 |pages=217–234, 375–395}}</ref>

[[Johann Gottfried Herder|Johann Gottfried von Herder]] broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the [[Sturm und Drang]] movement of proto-Romanticism. [[Weimar Classicism]] (''Weimarer Klassik'') was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] and [[Friedrich Schiller]], a poet and historian. The theatre principal [[Abel Seyler]] greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious [[German opera]], new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre.<ref>[[Wilhelm Kosch]], "Seyler, Abel", in ''[[Dictionary of German Biography]]'', eds. [[Walther Killy]] and [[Rudolf Vierhaus]], Vol. 9, [[Walter de Gruyter]], 2005, {{ISBN|978-3-11-096629-9}}, p. 308</ref> Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.<ref>{{citation |editor-first=Simon J. |editor-last=Richter |title=The Literature of Weimar Classicism |year=2005}}</ref>

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[Joseph Haydn]], and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Samantha |editor-last=Owens |editor2-last=Reul |editor2-first=Barbara M. |editor3-last=Stockigt |editor3-first=Janice B. |title=Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities |year=2011}}</ref>

In remote [[Königsberg]], Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Manfred |last=Kuehn |title=Kant: A Biography |year=2001}}</ref> German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Van Dulmen |editor2-first=Anthony |editor2-last=Williams |title=The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany |year=1992}}</ref> However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.<ref>[[Thomas P. Saine]], ''The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution'' (1997)</ref>

In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.<ref>Michael J. Sauter, "The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany's public sphere." ''Modern Intellectual History'' 5.2 (2008): 195–223.</ref>

===Habsburg monarchy===
The reign of [[Maria Theresa]], the first [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg monarch]] to be considered influenced by the Enlightenment in some areas, was marked by a mix of enlightenment and conservatism. Her son [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]]'s brief reign was marked by this conflict, with his ideology of [[Josephinism]] facing opposition. Joseph II carried out numerous reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, which affected, for example, the school system, monasteries and the legal system. Emperor [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], who was an early opponent of capital punishment, had a brief and contentious rule that was mostly marked by relations with France. Similarly, Emperor [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]]'s rule was primarily marked by relations with France.

The ideas of the Enlightenment also appeared in literature and theater works. [[Joseph von Sonnenfels]] was an important representative. In music, [[Austria]]n musicians such as [[Joseph Haydn]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] were associated with the Enlightenment.

===Italy===
{{Main|Italian Enlightenment}}
[[File:Pompeo Marchesi (1783.1858) Monumento a Cesare Beccaria, 1837, Milano.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Statue of [[Cesare Beccaria]], considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment]]
In Italy the main centers of diffusion of the Enlightenment were [[Naples]] and [[Milan]]:<ref>{{cite book |last=Mori |first=Massimo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGqODAAAQBAJ |title=Storia della filosofia moderna |date=2015 |publisher=Gius.Laterza & Figli Spa |isbn=978-88-581-1845-0 |language=it}}</ref> in both cities the intellectuals took public office and collaborated with the Bourbon and Habsburg administrations. In Naples, [[Antonio Genovesi]], [[Ferdinando Galiani]], and [[Gaetano Filangieri]] were active under the tolerant King Charles of Bourbon. However, the Neapolitan Enlightenment, like Vico's philosophy, remained almost always in the theoretical field.<ref>{{cite book |last=D'Onofrio |first=Federico |title=On the caoncept of 'felicitas publica' in Eighteenth-Century political economy, in History of economic thought |year=2015}}</ref> Only later, many Enlighteners animated the unfortunate experience of the [[Parthenopean Republic]]. In Milan, however, the movement strove to find concrete solutions to problems. The center of discussions was the magazine ''[[Il Caffè]]'' (1762–1766), founded by brothers [[Pietro Verri|Pietro]] and [[Alessandro Verri]] (famous philosophers and writers, as well as their brother Giovanni), who also gave life to the Accademia dei Pugni, founded in 1761. Minor centers were [[Tuscany]], Veneto, and [[Piedmont]], where among others, Pompeo Neri worked.

From Naples, Genovesi influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook ''Della diceosina, o sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto'' (1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical, and economic thought, which became a guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development.<ref>Niccolò Guasti, "Antonio Genovesi's Diceosina: Source of the Neapolitan Enlightenment." ''History of European ideas'' 32.4 (2006): 385–405.</ref>

Science flourished as [[Alessandro Volta]] and [[Luigi Galvani]] made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian [[Joseph Schumpeter]] states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty."<ref>Pier Luigi Porta, "Lombard enlightenment and classical political economy." ''The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought'' 18.4 (2011): 521–50.</ref> The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been [[Franco Venturi]].<ref>Franco Venturi, ''Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century'' (1972) [https://archive.org/details/italyenlightenme00vent online]</ref><ref>Anna Maria Rao, "Enlightenment and reform: an overview of culture and politics in Enlightenment Italy." ''Journal of Modern Italian Studies'' 10.2 (2005): 142–67.</ref> Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including [[Cesare Beccaria]], [[Giambattista Vico]], and [[Francesco Mario Pagano]].

===Bourbon Spain and Spanish America===
{{Main|Enlightenment in Spain|Spanish American Enlightenment}}
[[File:Constitucion Cadiz 1812.png|thumb|[[Spanish Constitution of 1812]]]]
When [[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]], the last Spanish Habsburg monarch, died his successor was from the French [[House of Bourbon]], initiating a period of French Enlightenment influence in Spain and the Spanish Empire.<ref>Aldridge, Alfred Owen. ''The Ibero-American Enlightenment.'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1971.</ref><ref>De Vos, Paula S. "Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries," ''Colonial Latin America Review'' 15, no. 1 (June 2006) 55–79.</ref>

In the 18th Century, the Spanish continued to expand their empire in the Americas with the [[Spanish missions in California]] and established missions deeper inland in South America. Under [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]], the crown began to implement [[Bourbon Reforms|serious structural changes]]. The monarchy curtailed the power of the Catholic Church, and established a standing military in Spanish America. Freer trade was promoted under ''comercio libre'' in which regions could trade with companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the restrictive mercantile system. The crown sent out scientific expeditions to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not control, but also importantly to discover the economic potential of its far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of use to the empire.<ref>Bleichmar, Daniela. ''Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012.</ref> [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]] gave Prussian scientist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] free rein to travel in Spanish America, usually closed to foreigners, and more importantly, access to crown officials to aid the success of his scientific expedition.<ref>[[David Brading|Brading, D. A.]] ''The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867'' Chapter 23, "Scientific Traveller." New York: Cambridge University Press 1991 {{ISBN|978-0-521-39130-6}}</ref>

When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]] on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the [[Bayonne Statute|Bayonne Constitution]] was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project. [[Peninsular War|A war of national resistance]] erupted. The [[Cortes of Cádiz|Cortes de Cádiz]] (parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of 1812]], which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial; put limits on the king by creating a [[constitutional monarchy]]; defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry; established [[universal manhood suffrage]]; and established public education starting with primary school through university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule.<ref>Thiessen, Heather. "Spain: Constitution of 1812." ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture,'' vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref>

===Haiti===
The [[Haitian Revolution]] began in 1791 and ended in 1804 and shows how Enlightenment ideas "were part of complex transcultural flows."<ref name=":0"/> Radical ideas in Paris during and after the French Revolution were mobilized in Haiti, such as by [[Toussaint Louverture]].<ref name=":0"/> Toussaint had read the critique of European colonialism in [[Guillaume Thomas François Raynal]]'s book ''[[Histoire des deux Indes]]'' and "was particularly impressed by Raynal's prediction of the coming of a 'Black [[Spartacus]].{{'"}}<ref name=":0"/>

The revolution combined Enlightenment ideas with the experiences of the slaves in Haiti, two-thirds of whom had been born in Africa and could "draw on specific notions of kingdom and just government from West and Central Africa, and to employ religious practices such as [[African diaspora religions|voodoo]] for the formation of revolutionary communities."<ref name=":0"/> The revolution also affected France and "forced the French National Convention to abolish slavery in 1794."<ref name=":0"/>

===Portugal and Brazil===
{{Main|History of Portugal (1640–1777)}}
The Enlightenment in Portugal (''Iluminismo'') was heavily marked by the rule of Prime Minister [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]] under King [[Joseph I of Portugal|Joseph I]] from 1756 to 1777. Following the [[1755 Lisbon earthquake]] which destroyed a large part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity (in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated industries in Portugal). His reconstruction of [[Lisbon]]'s riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets (the [[Lisbon Baixa]]), methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale example of [[earthquake engineering]], became collectively known as [[Pombaline style]], and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office. His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the [[Távora affair]].

In literature, the first Enlightenment ideas in Portugal can be traced back to the diplomat, philosopher, and writer [[António Vieira]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Thomas M. |date=15 November 2018 |title=Six Sermons, written by António Vieira |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jjs/5/4/article-p692_692.xml |journal=Journal of Jesuit Studies |language=en |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=692–695 |doi=10.1163/22141332-00504010-11 |issn=2214-1324 |doi-access=free}}</ref> who spent a considerable amount of his life in [[colonial Brazil]] denouncing discriminations against [[New Christian]]s and the [[indigenous peoples in Brazil]]. During the 18th century, enlightened literary movements such as the [[Arcádia Lusitana]] (lasting from 1756 until 1776, then replaced by the [[Nova Arcádia]] in 1790 until 1794) surfaced in the academic medium, in particular involving former students of the [[University of Coimbra]]. A distinct member of this group was the poet [[Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage]]. The physician [[António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches]] was also an important Enlightenment figure, contributing to the ''Encyclopédie'' and being part of the [[Anna of Russia|Russian court]]. The ideas of the Enlightenment influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the [[Portuguese Empire]], such as [[José Joaquim da Cunha Azeredo Coutinho|José de Azeredo Coutinho]], [[José da Silva Lisboa, Viscount of Cairu|José da Silva Lisboa]], [[Cláudio Manuel da Costa|Cláudio Manoel da Costa]], and [[Tomás António Gonzaga|Tomás Antônio Gonzaga]].

The Napoleonic [[invasion of Portugal (1807)|invasion of Portugal]] had consequences for the Portuguese monarchy. With the aid of the British navy, the Portuguese royal family was [[transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil|evacuated to Brazil]], its most important colony. Even though Napoleon had been defeated, the royal court remained in Brazil. The [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]] forced the return of the royal family to Portugal. The terms by which the restored king was to rule was a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of Portugal. Brazil declared its independence of Portugal in 1822 and became a monarchy.

===Russia===
[[File:Elizabeth of Russia visiting Lomonosov's mosaic workshop by A.V.Makovskiy (priv.coll.).jpg|thumb|[[Elizabeth of Russia|Empress Elizabeth]] visits Russian scientist [[Mikhail Lomonosov]].]]
In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as [[Leonhard Euler]] and [[Peter Simon Pallas]]. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of [[serfdom in Russia]]. The [[Russian Enlightenment]] centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life.<ref>Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia," ''Modern Russian History & Historiography,'' 2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp.&nbsp;1–26</ref>{{sfn|Israel|2011|pp=609–32}} A powerful element was ''prosveshchenie'' which combined religious piety, erudition, and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the Western European Enlightenment.<ref>Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited." ''Russian History'' 37.4 (2010): 360–77.</ref>

===Poland and Lithuania===
{{Main|Polish Enlightenment}}
[[File:Manuscript of the Constitution of the 3rd May 1791.PNG|thumb|[[Constitution of 3 May 1791|Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of 1791]], Europe's first modern constitution]]
Enlightenment ideas (''oświecenie'') emerged late in [[history of Poland|Poland]], as the Polish middle class was weaker and [[szlachta]] (nobility) culture ([[Sarmatism]]) together with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] political system ([[Golden Liberty]]) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on aristocratic [[republicanism]], but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia, and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King [[Stanisław August Poniatowski]] (second half of the 18th century).

Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle.<ref>Maciej Janowski, "Warsaw and Its Intelligentsia: Urban Space and Social Change, 1750–1831." ''Acta Poloniae Historica'' 100 (2009): 57–77. {{ISSN|0001-6829}}</ref> Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King [[Stanisław August Poniatowski|Stanislaw II August]] and reformers Piotr Switkowski, [[Antoni Popławski|Antoni Poplawski]], Josef Niemcewicz, and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, [[Gracjan Piotrkowski|Gracjan Piotrowski]], Karol Wyrwicz, and Wojciech Skarszewski.<ref>Richard Butterwick, "What is Enlightenment (oświecenie)? Some Polish Answers, 1765–1820." Central Europe 3.1 (2005): 19–37. [https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/31577077/Butterwick_What_is_Enlightenment_CE_05.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1505874099&Signature=UBisNjAzY5RdyAEsKG%2BbHWrJHJw%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DWhat_is_Enlightenment_Oswiecenie_Some_Po.pdf online]{{dead link|date=November 2017}}</ref> The movement went into decline with the [[Third Partition of Poland]] (1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by [[Romanticism in Poland|Romanticism]].<ref name="JS">Jerzy Snopek, [http://f.poland.pl/files/86/0/234/Literature_of_Enlightenment.pdf "The Polish Literature of the Enlightenment."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005232247/http://f.poland.pl/files/86/0/234/Literature_of_Enlightenment.pdf |date=5 October 2011}} (PDF 122 KB) ''Poland.pl.'' {{nowrap|Retrieved 7 October 2011.}}</ref>

===China===
[[File:Matteo Ricci 2.jpg|thumb|Italian [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest [[Matteo Ricci]] worked with several Chinese elites, such as [[Xu Guangqi]], in translating ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' into Chinese.]]
Eighteenth-century China experienced "a trend towards seeing fewer dragons and miracles, not unlike the disenchantment that began to spread across the Europe of the Enlightenment."<ref name=":0"/> Furthermore, "some of the developments that we associate with Europe's Enlightenment resemble events in China remarkably."<ref name=":0"/> During this time, ideals of Chinese society were reflected in "the reign of the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] emperors [[Kangxi Emperor|Kangxi]] and [[Qianlong Emperor|Qianlong]]; China was posited as the incarnation of an enlightened and [[meritocracy|meritocratic]] society—and [[instrumentalism|instrumentalized]] for criticisms of [[absolute monarchy|absolutist]] rule in Europe."<ref name=":0" />

===Japan===
From 1641 to 1853, the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] of Japan enforced a policy called ''[[Sakoku|kaikin]].'' The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.<ref>Ronald P. Toby, ''State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu,'' Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991.</ref> [[Robert N. Bellah|Robert Bellah]] found "origins of modern Japan in certain strands of [[Confucianism|Confucian]] thinking, a 'functional analogue to the [[Protestant work ethic|Protestant Ethic]]' that [[Max Weber]] singled out as the driving force behind Western capitalism."<ref name=":0" /> Japanese Confucian and Enlightenment ideas were brought together, for example, in the work of the Japanese reformer [[Tsuda Mamichi]] in the 1870s, who said, "Whenever we open our mouths...it is to speak of 'enlightenment.{{'"}}<ref name=":0" />

In Japan and much of East Asia, Confucian ideas were not replaced but "ideas associated with the Enlightenment were instead fused with the existing cosmology—which in turn was refashioned under conditions of [[globalization|global]] interaction."<ref name=":0" /> In Japan in particular, the term ''ri,'' which is the Confucian idea of "order and harmony on human society" also came to represent "the idea of [[laissez-faire]] and the rationality of [[market (economics)|market]] exchange."<ref name=":0" /> By the 1880s, the slogan "Civilization and Enlightenment" became potent throughout Japan, China, and Korea and was employed to address challenges of [[globalization]].<ref name=":0" />

===Korea===
During this time, Korea "aimed at isolation" and was known as the "[[hermit kingdom]]" but became awakened to Enlightenment ideas by the 1890s such as with the activities of the [[Independence Club]].<ref name=":0"/> Korea was influenced by China and Japan but also found its own Enlightenment path with the Korean intellectual [[Yu Kil-chun|Yu Kilchun]] who popularized the term Enlightenment throughout Korea.<ref name=":0" /> The use of Enlightenment ideas was a "response to a specific situation in Korea in the 1890s, and not a belated answer to Voltaire."<ref name=":0" />

===India===
In 18th-century India, [[Tipu Sultan]] was an enlightened monarch, who "was one of the founding members of the (French) [[Jacobin]] Club in [[Srirangapatna|Seringapatam]], had planted a [[Liberty Tree|liberty tree]], and asked to be addressed as 'Tipu Citoyen,{{'"}} which means Citizen Tipu.<ref name=":0"/> In parts of India, an important movement called the "[[Bengali Renaissance|Bengal Renaissance]]" led to Enlightenment reforms beginning in the 1820s.<ref name=":0" /> [[Ram Mohan Roy]] was a reformer who "fused different traditions in his project of social reform that made him a proponent of a 'religion of reason.{{'"}}<ref name=":0" />

===Egypt===
[[File:Leon Cogniet - Jean-Francois Champollion.jpg|thumb|[[Jean-François Champollion]], the founder of [[Egyptology]]]]
Eighteenth-century Egypt had "a form of 'cultural revival' in the making—specifically Islamic origins of modernization long before Napoleon's Egyptian campaign."<ref name=":0"/> [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|Napoleon's expedition into Egypt]] further encouraged "social transformations that harkened back to debates about inner-Islamic reform, but now were also legitimized by referring to the authority of the Enlightenment."<ref name=":0"/> A major intellectual influence on [[Islamic modernism]] and expanding the Enlightenment in Egypt, [[Rifa'a at-Tahtawi|Rifa al-Tahtawi]] "oversaw the publication of hundreds of European works in the Arabic language."<ref name=":0" />

===Ottoman Empire===
The Enlightenment began to influence the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 1830s and continued into the late 19th century.<ref name=":0"/>
The [[Tanzimat]] was a period of reform in the [[Ottoman Empire]] that began with the [[Edict of Gülhane|Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif]] in 1839 and ended with the [[First Constitutional Era]] in 1876.

[[Namık Kemal|Namik Kemal]], a political activist and member of the [[Young Ottomans]], drew on major Enlightenment thinkers and "a variety of intellectual resources in his quest for social and political reform."<ref name=":0"/> In 1893, Kemal responded to [[Ernest Renan]], who had indicted the Islamic religion, with his own version of the Enlightenment, which "was not a poor copy of French debates in the eighteenth century, but an original position responding to the exigencies of Ottoman society in the late nineteenth century."<ref name=":0"/>