Editing Western Front (World War I) (section)

== 1916 ==

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R05148, Westfront, deutscher Soldat crop.jpg|thumb|German soldier on the Western Front in 1916]]
Falkenhayn believed that a breakthrough might no longer be possible and instead focused on forcing a French defeat by inflicting massive casualties.{{sfn|Lyons|2000|p=141}} His new goal was to "bleed France white."{{sfn|Knox|2007|p=153}} As such, he adopted two new strategies. The first was the use of [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] to cut off entente supplies arriving from overseas.{{sfn|Hull|2005|pp=295–296}} The second would be attacks against the French army intended to inflict maximum casualties; Falkenhayn planned to attack a position from which the French could not retreat, for reasons of strategy and [[Patriotism|national pride]] and thus trap the French. The town of [[Verdun]] was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold, surrounded by a ring of forts, that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to Paris.{{sfn|Foley|2007|pp=207–208}}

Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to {{convert|3|–|4|mi|km|0|order=flip}} to concentrate artillery firepower and to prevent a breakthrough from a counter-offensive. He also kept tight control of the main reserve, feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going.{{sfn|Marshall|1964|pp=236–237}} In preparation for their attack, the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress. In the opening phase, they swept the air space of French aircraft, which allowed German artillery-observation aircraft and bombers to operate without interference. In May, the French countered by deploying ''escadrilles de chasse'' with superior [[Nieuport]] fighters and the air over Verdun turned into a battlefield as both sides fought for [[air superiority]].{{sfn|Campbell|1981|p=40}}

=== Battle of Verdun ===

{{Main|Battle of Verdun}}

[[File:Soldats Argonne 2.jpg|thumb|French soldiers observing enemy movements]]
The [[Battle of Verdun]] began on 21 February 1916 after a nine-day delay due to snow and blizzards. After a massive eight-hour artillery bombardment, the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts.{{sfn|Lyons|2000|p=143}} Sporadic French resistance was encountered. The Germans took [[Fort Douaumont]] and then reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February.{{sfn|Martin|2001|pp=28–83}}

The Germans turned their focus to [[Le Mort Homme]] on the west bank of the Meuse which blocked the route to French artillery emplacements, from which the French fired across the river. After some of the most intense fighting of the campaign, the hill was taken by the Germans in late May. After a change in French command at Verdun from the defensive-minded [[Philippe Pétain]] to the offensive-minded [[Robert Nivelle]], the French attempted to re-capture Fort Douaumont on 22 May but were easily repulsed. The Germans captured [[Fort Vaux]] on 7 June and with the aid of [[diphosgene]] gas, came within {{convert|1|km|yd}} of the last ridge before Verdun before being contained on 23 June.{{sfn|Jones|Hook|2007|pp=23–24}}

Over the summer, the French slowly advanced. With the development of the rolling [[barrage (artillery)|barrage]], the French recaptured Fort Vaux in November and by December 1916 they had pushed the Germans back {{convert|1.3|mi|km|order=flip}} from Fort Douaumont, in the process rotating 42 divisions through the battle. The Battle of Verdun—also known as the 'Mincing Machine of Verdun' or 'Meuse Mill'{{sfn|Foley|2007|p=224}}—became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice.{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=28}}

=== Battle of the Somme ===

{{Main|Battle of the Somme}}

[[File:British infantry Morval 25 September 1916.jpg|thumb|British infantry advance near Ginchy. Photo by [[Ernest Brooks (photographer)|Ernest Brooks]].]]
In the spring, entente commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French Army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun. The original plans for an attack around the [[River Somme]] were modified to let the British make the main effort. This would serve to relieve pressure on the French, as well as the Russians who had also suffered great losses. On 1 July, after a week of heavy rain, British divisions in [[Picardy]] began the Battle of the Somme with the [[Battle of Albert (1916)|Battle of Albert]], supported by five French divisions on their right flank. The attack had been preceded by seven days of heavy artillery bombardment. The experienced French forces were successful in advancing but the British artillery cover had neither blasted away barbed wire, nor destroyed German trenches as effectively as was planned. They suffered the greatest number of casualties (killed, wounded and missing) in a single day in the history of the British Army, about 57,000.{{sfn|Griffiths|1986|pp=71–72}}

The Verdun lesson learnt, the entente tactical aim became the achievement of air superiority and until September, German aircraft were swept from the skies over the Somme. The success of the entente air offensive caused a reorganisation of the German air arm and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat.{{sfn|Campbell|1981|p=42}} After regrouping, the battle continued throughout July and August, with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines. By August, General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely and instead, switched tactics to a series of [[Military unit|small unit]] actions.{{sfn|Baldwin|1962|p=79}} The effect was to straighten out the front line, which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with a major push.{{sfn|Rawson|2014|pp=140–158}}

The final phase of the battle of the Somme saw the first use of the [[tank]] on the battlefield.{{sfn|Miles|1992|pp=245–249}} The entente prepared an attack that would involve 13 British and Imperial divisions and four French corps. The attack made early progress, advancing {{convert|3500|–|4,500|yd|m|order=flip}} in places but the tanks had little effect due to their lack of numbers and mechanical unreliability.{{sfn|Prior|Wilson|2005|pp=280–281}} The final phase of the battle took place in October and early November, again producing limited gains with heavy loss of life. All told, the Somme battle had made penetrations of only {{convert|8|km|0}} and failed to reach the original objectives. The British had suffered about 420,000 casualties and the French around 200,000. It is estimated that the Germans lost 465,000, although this figure is controversial.{{sfn|Watson|2008|p=11}}

The Somme led directly to major new developments in infantry organisation and tactics; despite the terrible losses of 1 July, some divisions had managed to achieve their objectives with minimal casualties. In examining the reasons behind losses and achievements, once the British war economy produced sufficient equipment and weapons, the army made the platoon the basic tactical unit, similar to the French and German armies. At the time of the Somme, British senior commanders insisted that the company (120 men) was the smallest unit of manoeuvre; less than a year later, the section of ten men would be so.{{sfn|Corkerry|2001|p=88}}

=== Hindenburg line ===

{{Main|Hindenburg Line}}

[[File:Hindenberg line bullecourt.jpg|thumb|The Hindenburg Line at [[Bullecourt]] seen from the air]]
In August 1916 the German leadership along the Western Front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The new leaders soon recognised that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German Army. They decided that the German Army in the west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917, while the Central Powers would attack elsewhere.{{sfn|Herwig|1997|pp=246–252}}

During the Somme battle and through the winter months, the Germans created a [[fortification]] behind the Noyon Salient that would be called the Hindenburg Line, using the defensive principles elaborated since the defensive battles of 1915, including the use of [[Eingreif division]]s.{{sfn|Wynne|1976|p=290}} This was intended to shorten the German front, freeing 10 divisions for other duties. This line of fortifications ran from [[Arras]] south to [[Saint-Quentin, Aisne|St Quentin]] and shortened the front by about {{convert|30|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Herwig|1997|pp=246–252}} British long-range reconnaissance aircraft first spotted the construction of the Hindenburg Line in November 1916.{{sfn|Dockrill|French|1996|p=68}}