Editing Władysław III of Poland (section)

===Crusade against the Muslim Ottomans, 1443–1444===
{{further|Crusade of Varna}}
[[File:Battle of Varna 1444.PNG|thumb|250px|Władysław III at the [[Battle of Varna]], as imagined by [[Jan Matejko]].]]

The prelude to the crusade began when the Turks were defeated in the [[Hungarian–Ottoman War (1437–1442)|Hungarian–Ottoman War of 1437–1442]] and temporarily lost jurisdiction over the [[Principality of Wallachia]].{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}} In 1442, Sultan [[Murad II]] sent [[Mezid Bey]] into Transylvania with a large [[akinji]] army, raiding cities, towns and villages from the border to [[Sibiu]] (known in German as Hermannstadt and in Hungarian as Nagyszeben).{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}} Hunyadi initially lost the skirmish and one of the Hungarian leaders, Bishop [[György Lépes]], was killed at [[Sântimbru, Alba]].{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}} However, a few days later Hunyadi regrouped and attacked Ottoman positions with heavy cavalry at the [[Battle of Hermannstadt]], capturing and beheading Mezid.{{sfn|Setton|1969|pages=287–288}}{{sfn|Jefferson|2012|page=285}} This empowered Hungary to coerce the Wallachians and Moldavians to change loyalty and turn into the vassals of Hungary. Murad sought revenge and entrusted [[Hadım Şehabeddin]], governor-general of [[Rumelia]], with a new force to enter Wallachia; he too was defeated by Hunyadi near the [[Ialomița River]].{{sfn|Giurescu|Matei|1976|page=88}}

Throughout the autumn of 1442, Cesarini and the [[Republic of Venice]] were planning a crusade against the Turks, with the papacy pledging patronage and considerable funding.{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=288}} The united force would set out from Hungary with an assembled fleet under [[Francesco Condulmer]] stationed at the [[Dardanelles Strait]].{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=288}}{{sfn|Malone-Lee|2023}} The objective was to isolate routes and communication from [[Anatolia]] to Europe, protect [[Constantinople]], and join with the land troops to capture Turkish defensive posts on the [[River Danube]], thus leaving the Ottoman main army caught in Anatolia.{{sfn|Setton|1969|page=288}} Cesarini, acting as papal legate and gathering support, disseminated slogans and propaganda that would incite the Christian army to act.{{sfn|Malone-Lee|2023}}  Moreover, Italian humanist [[Francesco Filelfo]] wrote a personal letter to Władysław, describing him in Latin as the ''propugnaculum'', or the "[[Bastion|bulwark]] of Christianity".{{sfn|Piechocki|2021|pages=95–96}} On the other hand, [[Vlad II Dracul]] tried to dissuade Władysław from waging war against the Ottomans.{{sfn|Cazacu|2017|page=43}} Nevertheless, Vlad Dracul provided 7,000 (according to some accounts 4,000){{sfn|Treptow|2022}} horsemen under the command of his son, [[Mircea II of Wallachia|Mircea]], to fight against the Ottomans.{{sfn|Cazacu|2017|page=43}}

[[File:Stanisław von Chlebowski - Death of Władysław Jagiellon near Varna - MNK II-a-280 - National Museum in Kraków.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Władysław at Varna, as imagined by [[Stanisław Chlebowski]].]]
[[File:Gouldgulden Wladyslawa III Warnenczyka.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[guilder]] featuring Władysław's effigy and coat of arms]]

On 15 April 1444, at the [[Diet of Hungary|diet in Buda]] and in the presence of Cardinal Cesarini, Władysław swore to renew the war against Turkish infidels in the coming summer.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=82}} Similar promises were made to the Venetian delegates, the [[Signoria of Florence]] and to the [[Kingdom of Bosnia]].{{sfn|Setton|1976|pages=82–83}} [[Philip the Good|Philip the Good of Burgundy]] was also a generous benefactor to the Christian cause.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}} Simultaneously, Władysław engaged [[Stojka Gisdanić]] and dispatched him to [[Edirne]] as an envoy and mediator in peace talks with the Ottomans.{{sfn|Setton|1976|pages=82–83}} In June 1444, the fleet of Francesco Condulmer and [[Alvise Loredan]] was ready to sail and by mid-July arrived at [[Methoni, Messenia]], in modern-day [[Greece]].{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}} Murad already crossed into [[Asia Minor]] by this time and the fleet was tasked with preventing re-entry by holding the strait against him.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}}

In August, a Polish assembly at [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]] implored him to make peace with the Ottomans, dissatisfied with the level of taxes raised for the war and believing that Murad's terms could be lucrative.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=86}} The Poles were convinced that this would encourage Władysław to leave the [[Balkans]], return to Poland and re-establish himself there as king.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} Meanwhile, Cesarini sent letters of progress to [[Cyriacus of Ancona]], who was staying in Constantinople; he then translated them from Latin into [[Greek language|Greek]] for [[John VIII Palaiologos]], [[Byzantine emperor]].{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} The Byzantines were ecstatic of the news brought by Cesarini, as were the [[Genoese colonies]] and Pera ([[Galata]]).{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} Cyriacus also distributed letters to [[Naples|Neapolitan]] nobility and to [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], urging them to join the campaign.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}} The victory of [[Jean de Lastic]] and his [[Knights Hospitaller]] in the [[Siege of Rhodes (1444)|Siege of Rhodes]] contributed to the general euphoria surrounding the crusade.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=87}}

In mid-August 1444, the [[Peace of Szeged]] was ratified in [[Oradea]] (Várad).{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=83}} However, Władysław [[abjure]]d his oath and the war continued; on 20 September 1444 the king and Hunyadi crossed the Danube, beginning the army's march to the shores of the [[Black Sea]] to make contact with the allied fleet.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=88}} The Pope annulled and released [[Gjergj Arianiti]] from peace he made with the Turks; Arianiti was then able to march with his troops to [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and fight alongside the Christians if required.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=88}} At this time, Murad concluded a favourable peace treaty with [[Ibrahim II of Karaman]], who threatened Anatolia from the south.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} It allowed the Turks to focus their attention and resources on advancing into Europe; in late October 1444 he crossed the [[Bosphorus]] while the Christian fleet was stalled from adverse winds, and the Venetians did not make an effort to prevent that.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} Scholar [[Poggio Bracciolini]] appraised that as the true cause of the crusade's early failure.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} Genoese merchants and sailors were also accused of [[corruption]] and accepting bribes from Murad.{{sfn|Setton|1976|page=89}} According to witnesses, the Ottoman troops outnumbered the combined Christian forces and quickly marched to the Black Sea without a delay.{{sfn|Setton|1976|pages=89–90}}